Browse Topic: Transmissions

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Drain and Fill Plug for use on Engines, Transmissions, and Axles1J2606_202605 (Current)5/8/2026
Drain and Fill plugs used on engines, transmissions, transfer cases and front and rear drive axles for class 5 – 8 vehicles.
Truck and Bus Powertrain Committee
Analysis and optimization of noise and vibrational performance of an e-axle2026-26-03401/16/2026
As the electric mobility landscape evolves, there is a growing emphasis on addressing the Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) challenges associated with electric drivetrains. The absence of an IC engine in EVs shifts the focus to other noise contributors such as gear meshing, electric machine operation, and structural vibrations. Despite the known influence of micro-geometry on gear dynamics, current optimization practices often rely on empirical adjustments or standard guidelines without fully utilizing advanced computational methods to predict and optimize NVH performance. There exists a pressing need for a systematic approach to analyse and optimize gear micro-geometry to reduce noise and vibration in high-speed e-axle applications. This research aims to bridge that gap by investigating the relationship between micro-geometry optimization and NVH characteristics of an e-axle. Through detailed modelling and optimization techniques, this research aims to identify optimal gear micro
Ankit, Priyadarshi, KULKARNI, KRISHNA, Momin, Vaseem
Multispeed EV Transmission – Gear Shift Simulation and Validation2026-26-01571/16/2026
The advancement of electric vehicle (EV) transmission systems is currently a prominent trend aimed at decreasing carbon emissions and providing eco-friendly transportation alternatives. Most of the EV transmissions are single speed, but research conducted on multi speed EV transmissions show higher efficiency, good performance, high speed and torque demand when compared with single speed counterparts. Most of the multi speed EV transmissions that are developed are of non-synchromesh type, which have direct effect on NVH, driving dynamics and durability of drivetrain components. Due to aforementioned factors, gearshift analysis becomes critical for development. Simulation model is developed at early development phase for initial feedback. Using the feedback, drivetrain can be optimized furthermore and test on physical parts can be conducted for final verification. This paper provides a simulation based approach for modelling non-synchromesh two speed EV transmission using Simulation X
Patel, Hiral, Thambala, Prashanth, Sutar, Suresh, Todtermuschke, Karsten
Drive Cycle Type Identification Using Data Driven Methodologies2026-26-06491/16/2026
Identifying the type of drive cycle is crucial for analyzing customer usage and optimizing vehicle performance and emission control. Methods that rely on geographical location are limited by varying driving conditions at the same location (e.g., heavy traffic during peak hours vs. free-flowing traffic at night). This paper proposes a methodology to identify the type of drive cycle (city, interurban, highway or others) using drive characteristics derived from vehicle data rather than geographical location. Real-world vehicle data from testing trucks is taken, whose drive profiles are already known. Initially, multiple characteristic features of the drive cycle are identified from literature surveys and domain experiences. These features, which can be extracted from basic signal data, include gear shifts, time spent in different driving modes (acceleration, cruise, standstill), velocity distributions, and an 'aggressiveness factor' representing overall driving style. Using ML based
REDDY, MALLANGI PRASHANTH, Gorain, Raju, Ganguly, Gourav
Wetting prediction of power train components under the influence moving components using smooth particle hydrodynamics2026-26-03841/16/2026
Passenger cars are subjected to extensive conditions ranging from driving through wet roads, water puddles, icy roads, and rain. This can affect the performance of different parts over time, one such aspect is the vehicle corrosion, whose impact is felt on a wide spectrum from aesthetics to safety due to loss of material. The general condition for corrosion mainly requires electrolyte to be present on the metal surface, which is transported through self-soiling and foreign soiling. Vehicle soiling is an important aspect for vehicle design. Amongst the many aspects of vehicle soiling, one important aspect is the prediction of water accumulation that enables prediction of corrosion sensitive regions in the vehicle. Power train components like Engine, transmission and corresponding wiring harness are at highest risk of water-wetting, As the vehicle drives through the water pool the components are not just wet by the direct inflow of water but also by water being splashed by moving
Shukrey, Sarthak, Pattankar, Rohan, Yenugu, Srinivasa
Comprehensive Durability Assessment of Planet Carrier in Heavy-Duty Tipper Gearboxes Using RLDA Torque Data2026-26-04431/16/2026
In heavy-duty tippers, where challenging conditions demand high torque, planet carriers play a crucial role by enabling efficient load distribution and torque transmission while supporting gear ratio and speed variation in space-constrained systems such as automatic transmissions, hybrid drivetrains, and electric vehicles. This paper focuses on the comprehensive durability performance assessment of planet carriers using duty cycles derived from RLDA measurements for a heavy-duty tipper gearbox development program. The existing Design Validation Plan (DVP) for the planet carrier considers first gear utilization of 10-15% at 40% vehicle overload, in line with historical data. However, recent trends in mining applications revealed vehicle overloads of 55-65%, leading to an increase in first gear utilization (25-35%). This shift presents challenges for OEMs to enhance design durability while incorporating additional safety margins to meet the demands of a competitive, cost-driven market
Bagane, Shivraj, Pendse, Ameya
EVALUATION OF DRIVELINE NVH PERFORMANCE USING LINEAR DYNAMIC FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION2026-26-03221/16/2026
Automotive driveline design plays an important role in the NVH characteristics of the overall vehicle. Driveline systems are an integral part of delivering torque from the engine/transmission to the tires which propel the vehicle and drivelines often experience a wide frequency of excitation which poses unique NVH challenges. With the increasing trend in the automotive industry to introduce turbocharged engines with fewer cylinders while delivering the same torque / power, the driveline systems are excited with increased lower frequency torsional vibration in addition to other vibrations transmitted from powertrain and road. In this paper, we address the key design consideration for developing an optimal driveline system with consideration to NVH while keeping durability and other functional requirements in perspective. We consider the example of a front wheel drive-based vehicle architecture with independent suspension. The effect of fundamental prop shaft frequency to determine
JOSHI, ATUL KAMALAKARRAO, Subramanian, MANOJ
Experimental Evaluation of Metro Rail Bogie Frame through Bench Testing2026-26-05611/16/2026
Bogie frame is a main skeleton and structural member in railway system which is carrying all the loads such as Suspensions,Axles,wheels, car body, Motor, Gear box etc. The frame is subjected the exceptional and service stresses in Vertical, Longitudinal, Lateral and twist directions throughout the service life which should be withstand for a life span of 30 years without failure. The purpose of this project is to determine the Structural integrity of the Metro rail bogie frame in consideration with EN13749 standard .This paper is the outcome of bench testing of metro rail bogie frame with the application of multiaxial loading in static and dynamic campaign through which stress data is collected with strain gauge sensors and correlated with the FEA results at design stage. This helps to verify and evaluate the design and validate the quality of metro rail frame as per the requirement specified in EN13749 European standard in early design stages.
Tormal, Uday Bapurao
Tractor Clutch wear simulation by Inhouse development2026-26-05721/16/2026
To develop an accelerated Clutch test simulation method at inhouse laboratory as System level of validation to replicate field phenomena in short time with controlled repeatability and increased test accuracy. Wet clutch is one of the M&M technology project for higher hp(75) tractors. Currently Mahindra having dry clutch system in higher hp tractors & presently Wet clutch development in progress for higher HP tractors for increasing clutch life & to reduce clutch pedal operation as per customer requirement, hence new test rig to be developed for validating new tractor wet clutch system as per RWUP. Previously tractor clutch system is completely evaluated through field testing on tractor level. Thus, there are several drawbacks in field testing like more waiting time to avail seasons, more testing time, evaluation of limited number of samples, non-availability of complete tractor on time, less accuracy, less repeatability of test results, unsafe conditions of rider, higher human fatigue
D, Yashwanth, Raja, R, Udayakumar, S, M, Jeevaharan, Vijayakumar, Narayanan
Design & analysis of Dual Mass flywheel during Engine startup condition in 3 Cylinder Gasoline application2026-26-03491/16/2026
Modern automotive powertrains are increasingly adopting engine downsizing and down speeding to meet stringent emission regulations and improving fuel efficiency However, these changes result in higher torsional vibrations and excitation amplitudes makes more challenge in NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) refinement. With growing customer expectations for premium driving experiences conventional clutch are no longer sufficient. To meet the NVH performance targets of the vehicle Dual Mass Flywheels (DMFs) are used In DMF due to lower stiffness and inertia separation there is a great advantage on torsional filtration in normal drive and idle condition. but the resonance frequency of the connected DMF is lower than the idle RPM. Engine startup is a key drawback with DMF equipped vehicles. The proper tuning of starter motor performance & DMF stiffness is required to cross the resonance zone faster otherwise it will lead to DMF to stay in the resonance zone for a longer time leading to
Jayachandran, Suresh kumar, Vijayaragavan, Thirupathi, M, DEVAMANALAN, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, ahire, Manoj, Vellandi, Vikraman
Clutch Thermal Adequacy Assessment in Repeat Restart Launch Condition on Gradient2026-26-04341/16/2026
The clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages power transmission from the engine to the wheels. It consists of the clutch disc assembly and cover assembly. The clutch disc, with friction material linings, is mounted on the transmission shaft and gets clamped between the flywheel and cover assembly to transmit power as required. However, wear and tear occur due to the differential speeds and slippage between the engine and transmission during operation. Clutch performance is assessed for its thermal behavior under repeat restart conditions on steep gradients, which is essential for the reliability and durability of commercial vehicle clutches. Repeat restart test is a key test to assess clutch performance on a 12% gradient. This test replicates real world scenarios, such as truck launches on hilly terrains under full load, where the clutch experiences significant slippage due to speed differences. This generates heat, and repeated engagements can cause the temperature to
Munisamy, Sathishkumar, Chollangi, Damodar, Mane, Sudhir
A practical approach to reduce Gear Whine noise through gear Tooth contact analysis in an Agricultural Tractor2026-26-03451/16/2026
Customer demand for comfortable tractors has gone multi-fold in last decade. Transmission gear whine noise as one of the major sources of noise, is an important factor influencing the perceived quality of a vehicle and customer comfort. Investigations were carried out on 57HP tractor reported with high whine noise during deceleration from high speeds to low speeds. The source of whine noise is identified through order analysis as spiral bevel gear. Mitigating spiral bevel gear whine noise is always a challenge because of geometry, tooling and assembly requirements. Tooth contact analysis was performed on the spiral bevel gear for simulating the meshing of gear teeth to determine factors like contact patterns, transmission errors, and load distribution. From tooth contact analysis the root cause for high deceleration noise was identified as the motion transmission was not smooth in entry and exit for both forward and reverse. A practical approach of microgeometry optimization was
P, Bharath, p, Priyadarshan, Janarthanan, Devakumara Raja, Chavan, Amit
Performance Evaluation and Optimization of Engine Brake System using Chassis Dynamometer2026-26-05111/16/2026
Engine braking is a deceleration technique that leverages the internal friction and pumping losses within the engine. By closing the throttle and potentially selecting a lower gear, the engine creates a retarding force that slows the vehicle. This practice contributes to better fuel economy, decreased brake system load, and improved vehicle handling in specific driving scenarios, such as steep declines or slippery road surfaces. To alleviate stress on their primary braking systems and prevent overheating, heavy vehicles frequently incorporate engine-based braking. While older trucks relied on simple exhaust brakes with a butterfly valve to restrict exhaust flow, these had limited impact. Hence contemporary heavy vehicles almost exclusively use more advanced engine braking technologies. Traditionally, our heavy-duty vehicles use Exhaust brake system to elevate the braking performance on hilly terrains. Hence an improved sample of Engine brake was developed for enhanced braking
M, Vipin Prakash, Rajappan, Dinesh Kumar, R, Suresh, N, Gopi Kannan
3D Transient CHT Simulation of Frictional Heating in Jet-Lubricated Automotive Gears2026-26-04681/16/2026
Gears play a critical role in automotive transmission systems. During operation, frictional heat is generated in the intermeshing region due to loading. Effective lubrication and cooling are essential to minimize heat generation and ensure smooth operation. Lubrication failure can lead to a significant local temperature rise, potentially causing gear scuffing—a phenomenon where intermeshed gear teeth weld together and tear apart during rotation—resulting in severe damage and compromised transmission performance. To prevent this, gears are typically lubricated using splash or jet lubrication techniques. This study presents a Conjugate Heat Transfer (CHT) simulation of a jet-lubricated gear pair in an automotive transmission system to predict the local temperature rise due to frictional heating in the intermeshing region of the gears. The paper focuses on implementation of the frictional heat generation on the gear teeth and resultant transient temperature rise in the gear contact region
Ballani, Abhishek, Pasunurthi, Shyam Sundar
Virtual Validation of ADAS Algorithms Using Driver-in-the-Loop Simulation2026-26-00501/16/2026
Driver-in-the-Loop (DIL) simulators have become crucial tools across automotive, aerospace, and maritime industries in enabling the evaluation of design concepts, testing of critical scenarios and provision of effective training in virtual environments. With the diverse applications of DIL simulators highlighting their significance in vehicle dynamics assessment, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and autonomous vehicle development, testing of complex control systems is crucial for vehicle safety. A comprehensive review of current research trends reveals key areas of focus such as realism of simulated experiences through improved vehicle dynamics models and advanced sensory feedback. The integration of virtual and augmented reality technologies help to create more immersive and informative simulations to improve the cost-effectiveness and accessibility of DIL simulation platforms. By examining the current landscape of DIL simulator use cases, this paper critically focuses on
Sharma, Chinmaya, Bhagat, Ajinkya, Kale, Jyoti Ganesh, Karle, Ujjwala
Agricultural tractor brake linkage efficiency prediction and correlation using Flexible Multibody Dynamics model2026-26-01031/16/2026
In agricultural tractors, braking actuation is usually done through control linkages consisting of a series of connected four-bar linkages with multiple pivots from the pedal to the brake pads. The quality of force transmission is critical as it directly affects the braking performance of the tractor. Forces measured at the end of the control linkage or brake pull rod often show deviation with theoretically-based mechanical advantage calculations. This is due to various factors such as linkage transmission angle, elasticity, and friction in joints not considered, which contribute to loss in force transfer. A standardized simulation method needs to be developed and validated to predict the losses in the control linkage system. In this paper, the author proposes a simulation approach using multi-body dynamics, which includes contribution factors such as transmission angle, linkage elasticity, and friction in joints. MBS model for brake linkage system for three different tractors
Subbaiyan, Prasanna Balaji, Nizampatnam, Balaramakrishna, Redkar, Dinesh, Arun, G, K, Vinoth, R, Sengottu, Paulraj, Lemuel
Application of DOE Techniques to Identify Factors Influencing Gearbox Synchronizer Wear and Life.2026-26-04891/16/2026
Gearbox synchronizers are essential components for ensuring smooth gear shifting in both manual and automated manual transmissions. The lifespan of a synchronizer is influenced by a complex interplay of several factors, including synchro geometry, lubrication, friction material properties, clutch design parameters, powertrain vibrations, and various operating conditions. These factors contribute to the wear and degradation of synchronizers over time, affecting the overall performance and durability of the transmission system. This paper investigates the influence of various design and operational parameters on the synchronizer's life using a Design of Experiments (DOE) approach. A comprehensive experimental plan was meticulously developed to systematically vary key factors such as synchronizer friction material, the number of cones, lubricant viscosity, and clutch stiffness, among others. The resulting experimental data was analyzed through statistical methods, particularly regression
Jagtap, Amol Shivaji, Koulage, Dasharath, Rudramath, Sagar
Comparative Study of EV Transmission Performance used in Various Vehicle Segments2026-26-05841/16/2026
The transition to electric mobility has accelerated the evolution of drivetrain technologies, particularly in the design and performance of electric vehicle (EV) transmissions. Unlike traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs utilize simpler yet diverse transmission systems cater to specific performance, efficiency, and application requirements. The growing adoption of electric vehicles across diverse transportation sectors has intensified the need for optimized electric transmission systems as per vehicle requirements. This research presents a comparative study of electric transmission performance across various vehicle segments, including Passenger Cars, Small commercial Vehicle, Commercial three-wheelers and All-terrain vehicles. The study evaluates different transmission configurations namely single-speed and multi-speed, based on key performance metrics such as Drag loss and Efficiency. Through a combination of literature review, and performance benchmarking, the
Jain, Sankalp, P, EKHESH
Indian City Electric Bus Powertrain Optimization Using Active Learning Simulation Methodology2026-26-06571/16/2026
Public transport electrification is going to play a massive role in India's COP26 pledge to achieve net zero emissions by 2070. India plans to electrify 800,000 buses in a push towards 30% EV penetration by 2030. Further encouraged by government incentives under National Electric Bus Program (NEBP), eBus market is expected to grow at a CAGR of ~86% annually over the next 5 years. With most OEMs going for fleet electrification for reducing CO2 emissions and to cater to growing demand in Indian cities for cleaner public transport, improving powertrain efficiency and performance of state-of-the-art eBuses is a natural progression of e-mobility sector development in India. The first step in designing powertrain for an electric city bus is to determine the motor(s) size and transmission specifications (number of gears, gear ratios etc.). Complications arise due to a wider and non-linear operation range of eBus. This study focuses on powertrain optimization for a medium duty electric city
Emran, Ashraf, Berry, Sushil, Xia, Feihong, Chen, Bicheng, Sandhu, Rouble
Model Based Design of Gear Shift Control for Twin Clutch AMT2026-26-00541/16/2026
Model Based Design (MBD) uses mathematical modelling to create, test and refine systems in simulated environment, primarily applied in control system development. This paper discusses an approach to control gear shifting using shift logic on vehicle level for twin clutch transmission using prototype controller. Twin clutch transmission is a concept with two clutches, one at input end of the transmission called primary clutch and the other at output end of the transmission called secondary clutch. This concept is proposed to counter the challenges with conventional transmission which include increased gear shift time and effort in lower gears, potential rollback of vehicle in uphill condition and chance of missed shifts. The advantages of this concept include reduced gear shift effort and improved synchronizer life with potential for reducing the size of the synchro pack. This paper proposes a methodology to develop shift logic, integrate hardware with software, flashing and calibration
Patel, Hiral, Thambala, Prashanth, Tongaonkar, Yogesh, Mosthaf, Joerg, Malpure, Khushal
Engine Management System Strategies for Mitigating Dual Mass Flywheel Resonance in Gasoline Powertrains2026-26-00521/16/2026
In today's fast paced and competitive automotive market meeting the customers expectations is the key to any OEM. This has led to development of downsized high performance engines with refinement as an important deliverable. However developing such high output engines do come with challenges of refinement, especially higher torsional vibrations leading to transmission noise issues. Hence, it becomes important to isolate the transmission system from these high torsional vibration input. To address this, one of the most common method is to adopt Dual Mass flywheel (DMF) as this component dampens torsional vibrations and isolates the transmission unit from the same. While Dual Mass Flywheel assemblies do great job in protecting the transmission units by not allowing the oscillations to pass through them, they do have their own natural resonance frequency band close to the engine idle (low) engine speeds, which must be avoided for a continuous operation otherwise it may lead to Dual Mass
Raiker, Rajan, viswanatha, Hosur C, Jadhav, Aashish, Jain, Ojase, Jadhav, Marisha
Reverse Gear Duty Cycle Generation Using Virtual RLD Simulation2026-26-04051/16/2026
Keywords: RLD (Road Load Data), AVL VSM, AVL Route Studio, Duty Cycle, Transmission, Reverse Gear, Durability The development of transmission systems involves creating duty cycles for bench-level durability evaluations for both forward and reverse gears. For forward gear, vehicles are driven under various real-world conditions over thousands of kilometers, equipped with numerous sensors and components tailored for data collection. In contrast, duty cycles for reverse gear are often based on prior experience or rough estimations due to the lack of clear definition of real world use case. Reverse gear RLD is particularly scarce, especially for heavy-duty vehicles operating in off-road or mining environments, where specific reverse driving paths are not typically followed. This paper presents a detailed methodology highlighting the importance of reverse gear duty cycles by leveraging virtual RLD simulations on various gradients using tools such as AVL Route Studio and AVL VSM. By
Kansagara, Smit, Patel, Hiral, kira, Lucas, Sutar, Suresh, Soor, Debasis
The selection of a two-speed gearbox for small commercial electric vehicles aims to optimize powertrain efficiency2026-26-04171/16/2026
In response to the significant environmental challenges posed by climate change driven by global warming, the automotive industry is accelerating the transition toward electrification. While electric vehicles offer considerable potential for mitigating CO₂ emissions, their elevated upfront costs pose a notable challenge to large-scale market penetration. Energy efficiency improvement of electric vehicles is emerging field of research to reduce total cost of ownership. Electric vehicle powertrain component selection in small commercial vehicles including three and four wheelers is a complex process which has to fulfil multiple requirements Range, performance, drivability, packaging, total cost of ownership of vehicle and comfort. In addition, powertrain configuration including battery, motor and transmission ratio selection plays a fundamental role in cost of electric vehicle. Hence, The task of selecting the right powertrain configuration, encompassing architecture, motor selection
Wani, Kalpesh, Jadhav, Vaibhav, Shendge, Raman, Warule, Prasad
Dog Clutch Engagement Probability Simulation for Heavy-Duty Automated Mechanical Transmissions2026-26-04371/16/2026
This study presents a simulation-based approach to estimate the dog clutch engagement probability maps under different vehicle operating conditions. The developed probability function incorporates multiple critical parameters including initial speed differential between engaging components, application of countershaft brake, dog tooth quantity, friction coefficients at tooth interfaces, applied actuation force, dog tooth geometry, and component inertia. Using MATLAB and Simulink, comprehensive simulation models were developed to analyse engagement dynamics and produce detailed probability maps at different vehicle speeds, effectively outlining optimal operational zones for successful engagement while identifying critical regions prone to tooth clash and engagement failure. The effect of tooth geometry on engagement probability has been investigated using simulation model results. The resulting engagement maps serve as valuable diagnostic tools for identifying potential system
Khan, Mohammad Adeeb, KHAN, Dr. NURUZZAMA MEHADI, Koona, Rammohan
EV Transmission efficiency estimation using Simulation X2026-26-04531/16/2026
Electric vehicle (EV) transmission efficiency is crucial for optimizing energy use and enhancing performance. It minimizes power losses during energy transfer from the motor to the wheels, directly impacting the vehicle's range and battery life. High efficiency ensures smoother acceleration and better driving dynamics, improving the overall user experience. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) transmissions, EV transmissions often employ simpler, single-speed systems, reducing complexity and energy loss. Efficient transmissions help reduce energy usage, lower costs, and minimize environmental impact. As a result, transmission efficiency plays a vital role in ensuring the sustainability and reliability of EV designs. This paper proposes a simulation model based methodology to estimate EV transmission efficiency based on modelica models developed on simulation X. A single speed EV model is developed which contains whole transmission layout discretized into simple components which
Sutar, Suresh, Thambala, Prashanth, Patel, Hiral
Oil channelization for EV transmission.2026-26-00641/16/2026
Leakage of oil through breathers can be a serious concern in electric vehicle (EV) transaxle units, especially due to the complexities presented by small housing space and rotational components, which are running at relatively high speed compared to conventional transmission unit. Traditional methods are mostly centred on developing individual breather compartments, resulting in excess material usage, additional weight, and increased cost of manufacturing. This paper presents a novel and compact way of oil channelization that has been created for the gearbox housing and seeks to counter oil leakage along with maximizing space and efficiency. The improved design incorporates a cover, deflector fins, and obstruction ribs together with a strategically placed oil catcher cavity that effectively keeps the breather isolated from direct exposure to oil. The larger cavity minimizes internal pressure build-up, the fins restrict oil velocity, and an exclusive return path guarantees uninterrupted
Ekshinge, Mahesh Shivaji, Agrawal, Devesh, Pandey, Ankit Kumar, Bhandari, Kiran Kamlakar
Optimization of Propeller shaft design to eliminate Launch Undulation (Lateral shake) and Vibration level2026-26-03341/16/2026
During vehicle launches in 1st gear, a lateral shake (undulation) and a pronounced metallic hitting noise were observed in the underbody. The noise was identified as the propeller shaft's second universal joint (UJ) yoke striking the fuel tank mounting bracket. Sensitivity to these issues varied with acceleration inputs: light pedal input during a normal 1st gear launch on a flat road resulted in minimal undulation, whereas wide open throttle (WOT) conditions in 1st gear produced significant lateral shake and intensified hitting noise. Further investigation revealed that the problem persists across all gears and occurs consistently during normal driving conditions, with continuous impact between the propeller shaft yoke and the fuel tank mounting bracket. Extensive experimental measurements at the vehicle level indicated that these issues were primarily caused by the center-mounted propeller shaft joint deviating from its central position and rotating eccentrically under torque. This
Sanjay, L, S, Manickaraja, Kumar, Sarvesh, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Senthil Raja, T, B, Prem Prabhakar, M, Kiran
Development and Validation of a 1D Model for Evaluating Transmission Efficiency in Vehicles2026-26-00661/16/2026
This study develops a one-dimensional (1D) model to enhance transmission efficiency by evaluating power losses within a transmission system. The model simulates power flow and identifies losses at various stages such as gear mesh, bearing, churning, and windage losses. Using ISO/TR 14179, which provides a method for calculating the thermal transmittable power of gear drives with an analytical heat balance model, the 1D model ensures accurate thermal capacity evaluation under standard conditions. A key advantage of this 1D model is its efficiency in saving time compared to more complex 3D modelling, making it particularly useful during the conceptual stage of transmission system development. This allows engineers to quickly assess and optimize transmission efficiency before committing to more detailed and time-consuming 3D simulations. To validate the model, experimental tests were conducted at various motor speeds (RPM) and torque values, using high-precision sensors and dynamometers
Bandi, Nagendra Reddy
FATIGUE FAILURE ANALYSIS FOR AUTOMOTIVE TRASNMISSION2026-26-05771/16/2026
A fatigue failure in the transmission input shaft was identified during a bench-level endurance test under 2nd gear loading conditions. The test transmission’s input shaft comprises fixed 1st, reverse, and 2nd gears, with the remaining gears mounted as floating. The shaft was subjected to cyclic torsional loads, and failure occurred after a defined number of cycles. Metallurgical analysis revealed a brittle fracture surface with crack initiation at the outer surface, propagating to core in a helical pattern, ultimately resulting in complete shaft fracture. To monitor and replicate the failure, the test setup was instrumented with a Reilhofer Delta Analyzer for early fault detection. TTL signals from accelerometers mounted on the transmission and a bench speed sensor were fed into the system, which generated FFT spectra and trend indices. A warning alarm triggered upon deviation in the trend index, indicating premature damage initiation. The test was subsequently halted for component
Navale, Pradeep, Kushwaha, Rakesh, Patel, Hiral
Design & Optimization of CV shaft system to address powertrain induced NVH issues2026-26-03361/16/2026
The automotive industry is a crucial sector that plays a significant role globally. Government policies have a profound impact on this automotive industry in defining the regulatory standards and emission controls. Such regulations incentivized automakers to invest in research and development complying those standards towards reduction of vehicle emission which intern result in higher torsional vibrations and excitations amplitudes. To address the rising NVH related concerns in driveline system. Drive shafts (CV shafts) is an important component in power-train system in vehicle. Drive shaft’s main purpose to transfer torque from engines to wheels at multiple speeds with different articulation angles. The roughness generated by the engine follows a transfer path from engine to transaxle and transaxle to half shafts in monocoque vehicles which generates discomfort to the drivers whenever the vehicle is driven. The roughness can also be addressed by proper design of driveshaft stiffness
M A, Abdul Azarrudin, Jayachandran, Suresh kumar, KUMAR, SHIVANI, Bhardwaj, Kinshuk, M, DEVAMANALAN, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj
Gear Shift Validation of Multi Speed EV transmission on Test Bench using Vehicle Control Unit2026-26-05321/16/2026
Electric vehicle (EV) transmissions play a vital role in powering EVs by channelling energy from the electric motor to the wheels. Recently, the focus has shifted to multi-speed transmissions in the EV sector due to their potential to improve efficiency and performance. By utilizing various gear ratios, these transmissions enable the motor to function within its most efficient range across different speeds. Most of these transmissions need electronic control unit (ECU) with software for optimal functionality and smoother gear shifting. These controllers incorporate controller area network (CAN) communication protocol to operate along with other ECUs. Thus validation of these transmissions is a challenge as they are clutch less, motor has to be controlled for speed matching and have electro mechanical systems replacing conventional systems for operation. This paper proposes a methodology to validate multispeed EV transmissions on a test bench. The validation setup consists of electric
Thambala, Prashanth, Patel, Hiral, Soor, Debasis
Efficiency Enhancement of Electric Vehicle Drivetrains through Advanced Gearbox Strategies2026-26-00531/16/2026
In the pursuit of sustainable mobility solutions, optimizing drivetrain efficiency has emerged as a critical factor in enhancing the overall performance, reliability, and market acceptance of electric vehicles (EVs). This study specifically focuses on achieving efficiency improvements within the gearbox system of Electric Vehicles, a major contributor to mechanical losses in the drivetrain. Key technical strategies explored include the adoption of low-viscosity lubricants, utilization of low-friction bearings, incorporation of high-efficiency oil seals, and the application of low-loss gear designs. Collectively, these enhancements aim to reduce mechanical frictional losses, leading to tangible benefits such as increased vehicle driving range, reduced energy consumption, lower carbon emissions, and decreased long-term maintenance costs. In addition to component-level improvements, the study investigates the integration of a 2-speed gearbox within electric vehicles as a system-level
Agrawal, Devesh, Bhardwaj, Abhishek, Bhandari, Kiran Kamlakar
Analysis technique of Tractor Hydraulic system power loss contribution2026-26-05371/16/2026
To develop a Test Method & Procedure for measuring the Tractor hydraulic system power loss contribution. Tractor engine power measurement test conducted through tractor PTO with the help of eddy current dynamometer in Tractor PTO test bed. In this PTO test bed, the Major contribution of Engine power consumed for Transmission drive line shall be verified. In one of M&M technology project, wet PTO with integrated hydraulic system not possible to measure the Hydraulic power consumption in the PTO test bed. To measure the wet PTO transmission drive line power consumption, need to separate the Hydraulics system. First time in tractor industry hydraulics system isolated & transmission power loss measurement done to improve new Technology systems performance in M&M tractors especially in wet PTO transmission. Hence, we decided to isolate the Hydraulics system to measure the Transmission power loss. We have planned to develop & adopt our in-house test facility with suitable resources to drive
M, Kalaiselvan, Raja, R, Udayakumar, S, Prashant, Bange, Vijayakumar, Narayanan
Hypoid Gear Performance Redefined: Addressing Scoring and Whine Noise Concerns2026-26-00781/16/2026
Rear drive vehicles transfer power to the rear wheels through the Gear Carrier Assembly, which is fit at the central section of the Rear Axle. The Gear Carrier Assembly includes hypoid ring and pinion gears, set at the heart of the system. However, gear scoring and whine noise frequently emerge as critical challenges, leading to reduced durability and compromised performance of the vehicle. This study focuses on the design and process improvements aimed at addressing these concerns while enhancing the overall performance and reliability of hypoid gears. Design enhancements include macro geometry refinements, material upgrades, and modifications in the heat treatment process. These changes improved key mechanical properties such as contact stress, bending strength, impact strength, and motion transmission error (MTE). Process optimizations involved precise control over carburizing, hardening, and quenching temperatures, as well as adjustments in quenching pressure. These measures
Praveen, Abhinav, Deshpande, Praveen, Jain, Saurabh Kumar, Parmar, Mayur, Karle, Nilesh, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Pagar, Pawan
Multibody Dynamic Analysis of Belt-Type CVT Systems in Two-Wheelers: A Study on Slip, Misalignment, and Transmission Efficiency2026-26-00791/16/2026
More efficient drivetrain technologies are in greater demand in the two-wheeler market as a result of the introduction of BS6.2 emission standards. In order to satisfy these performance and regulatory requirements, Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) systems—which are renowned for their stepless gear shifting and increased fuel efficiency—are being given more and more consideration. However, because CVT is nonlinear and multibody dynamic, accurately predicting its behavior is still a difficult task. With an emphasis on variables like belt slip, pulley misalignment, and transmission efficiency, this study provides a thorough multibody dynamic analysis of a belt-type CVT system used in two-wheelers. High-fidelity analysis of the belt-pulley interaction under various load and speed conditions is now possible thanks to the development of a novel modeling methodology using advanced multibody dynamics simulation software – Virtual Dynamics. The method makes early design validation
Mane, Prashant, Shah, Swapnil, Voncken PhD, Antonius, Pinjari, Abrar, Emran, Ashraf, Mane PhD, Shrikala
Power loss evaluation in 4WD axle and correlation with Testing results2026-26-01071/16/2026
In the tractor, the efficiency depends on the transmission system, of all the losses major contribution is given by the transmission elements. To improve the efficiency, it became crucial to monitor the areas of power losses. Power loss in transmission refers the reduction in amount of power which being generated from the engine source to the final drive elements. There are various parameters and factors influence this condition, analyzing those conditions helps in identifying & improving the higher contributing components for driveline power loss. This study presents a comparative analysis of theoretical and experimental data regarding power loss in the gear train of a 70HP 4WD front axle. The investigation incorporates theoretical power loss calculations for individual components, including the bevel gear, bearings, thrust washer and seal arrangements. To evaluate and validate the power losses in the 4WD axle, a Gear Train Endurance test was conducted in a controlled laboratory
Jayapal, Jayaraj, Mahapatra, Soumya Ranjan, Sethi, Suvendu Kumar, JOSHI, SHRIKANT, BANGE, PRASHANT
Structural and Micro-Geometry Optimization of an Electric drive unit for Whine Noise Reduction2026-26-03151/16/2026
The noise generated by pure electric vehicles (EVs) has become a significant area of research, particularly due to the increasing adoption of electrified propulsion systems aimed at meeting OEM fleet CO₂ reduction targets. Unlike internal combustion engines, which mask many drivetrain noises, EVs expose new challenges due to the quieter operation of electric motors. In this context, the transmission system and gear structures have emerged as primary contributors to noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) in EVs. The present study provides an NVH study that focuses on the gear whine noise issue that is seen at the vehicle level and cascades to the powertrain level. Comprehensive root cause identification, focusing on the transmission system's structural and dynamic behavior. The research emphasizes modifications to both the gearbox housing and gear structures to reduce noise level, and model validation was all part of the study, which was accompanied by physical test results. Using MBS
Baviskar, Shreyas, Kamble, Pranit, Ghale, Guruprasad, Bendre, Parag, Prabhakar, Shantanu, Kunde, Sagar, Thakur, Sunil, Wagh, Sachin
Simulation Driven Virtual Road Load and Accelerated Duty Cycle Generation for 3-Speed eAxle Systems2026-26-04011/16/2026
The transition from Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles to Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) introduces significant challenges in drivetrain development, particularly when historical road load data (RLDA) is unavailable. This research proposes a methodology for virtually generating and processing RLDA to evaluate the durability of a novel 3-speed electric axle (eAxle) system before physical prototype construction. By employing AVL Route Studio, we simulated diverse global driving conditions across urban, highway, and mixed terrains to generate high-frequency torque and speed data. Since the resulting millions of data points are impractical for direct fatigue assessment, we utilised Romax software to condense the virtual RLDA into an accelerated duty cycle while maintaining the original fatigue damage characteristics. Unlike traditional binning techniques that often mischaracterise load severity, our damage-matching approach ensures the condensed cycle accurately replicates gear
LIGADE, PRATIK, KHAN, Dr. NURUZZAMA MEHADI, Koona, Rammohan Rao
HELICOPTER TURBOSHAFT ENGINE IDLE POWER SCHEDULINGAIR4121 (Current)11/26/2025
The purpose of this AIR (Aerospace Information Report) is to provide aircraft and engine designers with a better understanding of helicopter turboshaft engine idle power characteristics and objectives to be considered in the design process. Idle is the lowest steady state power setting. At this setting, the engine typically does not produce enough power to obtain governed output shaft speed (i.e. the shaft speed is determined by the load imposed by the aircraft). In the aircraft, the engine is typically stabilized at this power setting after starting, prior to taxi and for some period of time after rotor shutdown for cool down prior to engine shutoff. Traditionally, the aircraft designer wants idle power scheduled as low as possible and of course, does not want any resulting aircraft operational difficulties such as overcoming the rotor brake. The engine designer, however, desires a higher scheduled power because of the reduced probability of engine operational problems. The attributes
S-12 Powered Lift Propulsion Committee
SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine µPVT TestJ2490_202511 (Current)11/25/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice is intended as the definition of a standard test, which may be subject to frequent change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This should be kept in mind when considering its use.The SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine is used to evaluate the friction characteristics of automatic transmission plate clutches with automotive transmission fluids. It can also be used to conduct durability tests on wet friction systems.The specific purpose of this document is to define a µPVT Test for the evaluation of the variation of wet friction system performance as a function of speed, temperature, and pressure. This procedure is intended as a standard for both suppliers and end users.The only variables selected by the supplier or user of the friction system are:a. Friction materialb. Fluidc. Reaction platesThese three variables must be clearly identified when reporting the results of this test. If any of the test parameters or system hardware as described in
Automatic Transmission and Transaxle Committee
SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine 6000 rpm Stepped Power TestJ2488_202511 (Current)11/25/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice is intended as the definition of a standard test, but may be subject to frequent change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This should be kept in mind when considering its use.The SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine is used to evaluate the friction characteristics of automatic transmission plate clutches with automotive transmission fluids. It can also be used to conduct durability tests on wet friction systems.The specific purpose of this document is to define a 6000 rpm stepped power test for the evaluation of wet friction system performance variation as a function of power level. This procedure uses an initial engagement speed of 6000 rpm and is intended as a standard procedure for common use by both suppliers and end users.The only variables selected by the supplier or user of the friction system are:a. Friction materialb. Fluidc. Reaction platesThese three variables must be clearly identified when reporting the results of using this test
Automatic Transmission and Transaxle Committee
SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine 3600 rpm Stepped Power TestJ2487_202511 (Current)11/21/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice is intended as the definition of a standard test, but may be subject to frequent change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This should be kept in mind when considering its use.The SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine is used to evaluate the friction characteristics of automatic transmission plate clutches with automotive transmission fluids. It can also be used to conduct durability tests on wet friction systems.The specific purpose of this document is to define a 3600 rpm Stepped Power Test for the evaluation of wet friction system performance variation as a function of power level. This procedure uses an initial engagement speed of 3600 rpm and is intended as a standard procedure for common use by both suppliers and end users.The only variables selected by the supplier or user of the friction system are:a. Friction Materialb. Fluidc. Reaction PlatesThese three variables must be clearly identified when reporting the results of using this test
Automatic Transmission and Transaxle Committee
Hybrid-Electric Powertrain Design for Enhanced Vehicle PerformanceF-0081-2025-03695/20/2025
Electrification could improve full-size rotorcraft performance by reducing peak turbine power demand, reducing transmission system weight and complexity, and reducing operating costs. Integrating electric machines with mechanical powertrains requires careful consideration of the system-level weight and efficiency impacts. This paper presents an optimization framework for evaluating parallel hybrid powertrain configurations using Geometric Programming (GP). Both retrofit and clean-sheet vehicle designs are considered. The results show that high-speed electric motors integrated into a parallel hybrid configuration using batteries can reduce the sized gas turbine power, enabling more efficient engine operation at lower power levels. For retrofit designs, with a fixed vehicle gross weight, adding batteries and motors reduces usable fuel, decreasing mission capability. Clean-sheet designs offer additional flexibility to re-size the vehicle and rotor, resulting in energy savings for an
VanLandingham, Aaron, Hall, David, Smith, Edward, Bill, Robert
Analysis of Complex Transmission Systems, Leveraging SPH Analysis and Reduced Order ModelingF-0081-2025-02625/20/2025
There is a continued and growing need for better analysis and simulation of complex transmission systems with the rise of hybrid electric powerplants coming to future aviation vehicles. In this paper we discuss how reduced order modeling can help to efficiently predict the thermal behavior of gearboxes during operations smartly reusing data from SPH based oil flow simulations. To solve the thermal problem, a dynamic non-linear Reduced Order Model (ROM) is generated to estimate the Gear-Oil heat transfer coefficient (HTC) based on variable gearbox RPM and Oil fill level.
Mallios, Spyridon, Cole, Blaise
Minimum Weight Design of an Electronic Continuously Variable Transmission for Rotorcraft ApplicationsF-0081-2025-02905/20/2025
This paper, explores the design and sizing of a planetary gear-based electronic continuously variable transmission (ECVT) for implementation of a parallel gas-electric hybrid helicopter propulsion system. The ECVT consists of a differential planetary gear transmission (PGT) and an electric motor/generator (MG) unit. The ECVT enables power-flow between engine, motor and helicopter main rotor. The parallel arrangement enables the main rotor speed to varied continuously based on the MG speed while the engine speed can remain constant. The performance benefits enabled by the main rotor speed variation capability are offset by the added weight penalties introduced by the ECVT system. By considering factors such a as gear tooth bending and contact stress, bearing loads, required motor torque, planetary gear kinematics and pitch-line velocity constraints, this paper conducts a minimum mass design study for several PGT / ECVT arrangements. Here, three different single stage PGT/ECVT
DeSmidt, Hans, Ai, Zhisheng
Tunable Auxiliary Lubrication System for Helicopter TransmissionsF-0081-2025-02435/20/2025
The Main Gearbox of a helicopter is a crucial component that delivers the desired performance and ensures the highest possible level of safety of the aircraft; it includes several gears and bearings, which require to be continuously lubricated by a pressurized oil flow. Undesired circumstances may cause the oil to leak from the main circuit, hence reducing its pressure and consequently the oil flow rate targeted towards the rotating components; this modifies their friction coefficient, and subsequently leads to an overheating of the parts with the risk of degenerating in a catastrophic failure. During the design of a helicopter drive system, engineers need to take proper precautions and make sure that the MGB is fully equipped with the proper features to cope with a loss of lubrication event; specifically, the drive system is supposed to be able to run at least 30 minutes after the oil pressure drops to zero. A lot of effort has been put over the years at Leonardo Helicopters to find
Alari, Lorenzo, Sartori, Sergio, Pisani, Paolo, Tamborini, Marco Ernesto, Delvecchio, Gabriele, Scaltritti, Diego
Dependency of Gear Honing Machine Processing Accuracy on Machine Vibration and the Vibration Reduction Considering Contribution2024-32-00204/18/2025
In recent years, accurate gear processing is required for various products to improve efficient power transmission and small noise and vibration. On the other hand, the accuracy tends to be worse by high speed processing for increasing production efficiency. Therefore, we investigated relationship between gear honing machine vibration and the accuracy. The vibration acceleration of the honing machine was measured at various conditions, and the gear accuracy was measured after processing. As results, the accuracy was observed to be affected by both the original gear accuracy before honing processing and the gear secondary rotational vibration of the machine in operation. Subsequently, we applied transfer path analysis (TPA) to investigate which directional force in operation increased the vibration. As the results, the contribution from the input force at gear processing point along normal direction was the main contributor. Then, vibration transmission characteristics of the machine
Hanioka, Hiroaki, Ogawa, Yunosuke, Yoshida, Junji, Onishi, Yoichi, Kurokawa, Yasuhiro
A Power Split eCVT Hybrid for Sustainable Urban Mobility2024-32-00294/18/2025
The main drivers for powertrain electrification of two-wheelers, motorcycles and ATVs are increasingly stringent emission and noise limitations as well as the upcoming demand for carbon neutrality. Two-wheeler applications face significantly different constraints, such as packaging and mass targets, limited charging infrastructure in urban areas and demanding cost targets. Battery electric two wheelers are the optimal choice for transient city driving with limited range requirements. Hybridization provides considerable advantages and extended operation limits. Beside efficiency improvement, silent and zero emission modes with solutions allowing fully electric driving, combined boosting enhances performance and transient response. In general, there are two different two-wheeler base categories for hybrid powertrains: motorcycles featuring frame-integrated internal combustion engine (ICE) and transmission units, coupled with secondary drives via chain or belt; and scooters equipped with
Schoeffmann, W., Fuckar, G., Hubmann, C., Gruber, M.
A Concept for Functional Modelling of an E-Bike Powertrain2024-32-00174/18/2025
The increasing popularity of e-bikes, especially pedelecs, has led to a growing interest in consideration of e-bike cycling. To achieve a deeper understanding on the process of e-bike cycling and in particular the effects on the rider it can be instrumental to use simulation methods. In this context, the e-bike drive system and its function are of central importance for e-bikes. Therefore, this work proposes a functional modeling of the powertrain of an e-bike with a mid-drive motor, considering legal constraints and support functionalities. The model incorporates the mechanical transmission between pedals, motor, and crank shaft, allowing for a detailed analysis of the e-bike’s performance. Additionally, the support mechanism is depicted, where an electric motor amplifies the rider’s pedaling torque. The electrical behavior of the motor, energy consumption, and battery state of charge are also integrated into the model. This comprehensive approach aims to provide a generic
Rauch, Yannick, Kettner, Maurice, Kriesten, Reiner
ENGINE, BATTERY AND VEHICLE SIMULATION STRATEGIES FOR TRANSMISSION TESTING2024-01-311711/15/2024
WHY DO WE NEED SIMULATIONS? This paper is intended to provide a broad presentation of the simulation techniques focusing on transmission testing touching a bit on power train testing. Often, we do not have the engine or vehicle to run live proving ground tests on the transmission. By simulating the vehicle and engine, we reduce the overall development time of a new transmission design. For HEV transmissions, the battery may not be available. However, the customer may want to run durability tests on the HEV motor and/or the electronic control module for the HEV motor. What-if scenarios that were created using software simulators can be verified on the test stand using the real transmission. NVH applications may prefer to use an electric motor for engine simulation to reduce the engine noise level in the test cell so transmission noise is more easily discernable.
Johnson, Bryce
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