Browse Topic: Power and Propulsion

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Analysis Techniques for Racecar Data Acquisition [mms update 07.03.25]R-367To be published on 03/22/2099
Data acquisition has become an invaluable tool for establishing racecar - and car/driver - performance. Now that the ability exists to analyze each and every performance parameter for car and driver, accurate use of this data can provide a key advantage on the racetrack. This book provides a thorough overview of the varied methods for analyzing racecar data acquisition system outputs, with a focus on vehicle dynamics.
Segers, Jorge
Fuel Cell Vehicle TerminologyJ2574_202605 (Current)5/8/2026
This SAE Information Report contains definitions for hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicle terminology. It is intended that this document be a resource for those writing other hydrogen fuel cell vehicle documents, specifically, Standards or Recommended Practices.
Fuel Cell Standards Committee
Drain and Fill Plug for use on Engines, Transmissions, and Axles1J2606_202605 (Current)5/8/2026
Drain and Fill plugs used on engines, transmissions, transfer cases and front and rear drive axles for class 5 – 8 vehicles.
Truck and Bus Powertrain Committee
Hydrogen Fuel Quality for Fuel Cell VehiclesJ2719_202605 (Current)5/8/2026
This standard provides background information and a hydrogen fuel quality standard for commercial proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell vehicles. This report also provides background information on how this standard was developed by the Hydrogen Quality Task Force (HQTF) of the Interface Working Group (IWG) of the SAE Fuel Cell Standards Committee.
Fuel Cell Standards Committee
Tube Fittings, Aerospace Fluid Systems, Separable, for 24 Degree Cone, General Specification, Metric (ISO 7169)1MA2005D (Current)5/8/2026
This document specifies performance and quality requirements for the qualification and manufacture of 24 degree cone fittings to ensure reliable performance in aircraft hydraulic systems.This document specifies baseline criteria for the design and manufacture of system fittings that are qualification tested on engines.This document covers fittings of temperature types and pressure classes specified in MA2001.
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Acoustic Assessment in a Small Displacement Diesel Engine2014-32-01291/30/2026
In the last years, the increasing concern for the environmental issues of IC engines has promoted the development of new strategies capable of reducing both pollutant emissions in atmosphere and noise radiation. Engines can produce different types of noise: 1) aerodynamic noise due to intake and exhaust systems and 2) surface radiated noise. Identification and analysis of noise sources are essential to evaluate the individual contribution (injection, combustion, piston slap, turbocharger, oil pump, valves) to the overall noise with the aim of selecting appropriate control strategies. Previous paper focused on the combustion related noise emission. The research activity aimed at diagnosing and controlling the combustion process via acoustic measurements. The optimal placement of the microphone was selected, where the signal was strongly correlated to the in-cylinder pressure development during the combustion process. Analysis and processing of the sound emission allowed the acoustic
Chiatti, Giancarlo, Recco, Erasmo, Chiavola, Ornella, Conforto, Silvia
Enhancing Engine Reliability Testing with IoT, AI and ML: Real-Time ML-based Limit Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance with IoT sensor2026-26-06471/16/2026
The integration of Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Machine Learning (ML) has transformed various industries, offering substantial benefits. The application of these technologies in engine reliability testing has immense potential as they offer real-time monitoring and analysis of engine performance parameters. Engine reliability testing is vital for ensuring the safety, efficiency, and longevity of engines. Traditional methods are time consuming, expensive, and rely heavily on manual inspection and data analysis. This paper shows how IoT, AI and ML technologies can greatly enhance the efficiency of engine reliability testing. The paper includes the following case studies: 1. ML-based Limit Monitoring for test data: With the help of machine learning models, we monitor the Engine health by comparing predicted and measured values during real-time testing. Intelligent algorithms predict and compare values, detect anomalies, and identify root causes in real-time
Yadav, Sanjay Kumar, kumar, prabhakar, R, Dinesh, Joon, Sushant, Rai, Ayush, Tripathi, Vinay Mani
Vehicle usage Digital Twins - Mobility analysis test case2026-26-03941/16/2026
In the evolving landscape of the automotive industry, this study presents an innovative approach to developing digital twins for driver profiles, establishing a standardized and scalable procedure for collecting and analyzing driving data on a global scale. The proposed methodology centers on the development of a robust cloud infrastructure, including a Data Lake and associated services, designed for efficient storage and processing of large volumes of data from multiple markets and vehicle types. The research introduces a adaptable procedure for data collection campaigns, applicable to diverse global markets and encompassing a wide range of vehicles, from internal combustion engines to electric and hybrid models. A key feature of this approach is the establishment of advanced data decoding protocols, enabling precise interpretation of CAN network information from vehicles of different manufacturers and models, even when the CAN structure is not previously known. The study defines
Arturo, Rubio, Marín Saltó, Anna, Diaz, Francisco, Olivencia, Sergio, Medina, Alba
REPLACING DIESEL ENGINES WITH CNG ENGINES – IMPACT ON EMISSIONS, BASED ON CHASSIS DYNAMOMETER TESTS OF MEDIUM AND HEAVY-DUTY BUSES2026-26-01271/16/2026
Abstract This paper compares carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane and nitrogen oxide emissions from medium and heavy-duty buses using diesel, diesel-hybrid, and CNG powertrains. Comparisons are made using results from chassis dynamometer-based tests with driving cycles intended to simulate a wide range of operating conditions. Tail pipe emissions are measured by diluting the vehicle exhaust in a full-scale dilution tunnel by mixing with conditioned air. Samples are drawn through probes of raw exhaust, diluted exhaust and measured using laboratory grade emission analyzers. Emissions measurements include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons including methane. Fuel consumption for liquid fuels is measured using weighing scales, while a gas flow meter is used for measuring CNG. Experimental data from 20 buses tested on a chassis dynamometer over the last 8 years is analyzed and a comparison of results from similar buses but with the differently fueled
Iyer, Suresh
Machine Learning Approach to ISO Road Class Prediction Using Multiple Linear Regression2026-26-06671/16/2026
The inertial profiler methodology is traditionally employed in RLDA (Road Load Data Acquisition) to measure road profiles and classify test routes into ISO road classes. However, this approach demands significant time and effort during instrumentation. Also, during data acquisition, laser height sensor data is affected especially during adverse conditions such as rainy seasons or on surfaces with improper reflectivity. Additionally, substantial resources are required for data processing to convert raw measurements into road classifications. To address these challenges, an initial attempt was made to establish a relationship between axle acceleration responses and road profiles, enabling axle acceleration measurements during RLDA to predict ISO road classes. However, this approach relied on a simple linear model that considered only axle acceleration responses, rendering the predictions susceptible to inaccuracies due to varying parameters such as vehicle speed. To overcome these
P, Praveen Kumar, P, Dayalan, Sriramulu, Yoganandam
Propeller Shaft Yoke Phase and Inclination angle Optimization in Passenger Vehicles through Analytical Method2026-26-03481/16/2026
Customer satisfaction is the most important parameter to achieve the success in the highly competitive automobile industry. Comfortable ride and handling are one of the important aspects for customer viewpoint. Propeller shaft is the critical components in the vehicle to affect the smooth operation of the vehicle. Propeller shaft universal joint (UJ) phase and inclination angle significantly affect the vehicle performance during frequent braking and acceleration. So, for this conditions, comprehensive study of the propeller shaft should be performed for smooth operation. In this paper, Propeller shaft UJ phase and inclination angle optimization is studied through analytical method, which are very essential parameter for optimizing induced vibration performance and comfort. Propeller shaft characteristics influenced by several factors like vehicle torque, propeller shaft joint type, materials properties, UJ phase and inclination angle and shaft unbalance value. By optimizing the above
Kumar, Sarvesh, Sanjay, L, S, Manickaraja, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj
Calibration strategy to address abnormal engine noise in cold transient driving condition2026-26-05851/16/2026
Passenger vehicle users often maneuver their cars in diverse and unpredictable driving patterns. The vast and varied terrain of the Indian subcontinent further complicates this scenario, introducing unique challenges due to differences in driving expertise, vehicle usage, and environmental conditions. A specific challenge addressed in this paper arises during cold to ambient engine temperatures and transient driving conditions—a critical phase for engine calibration to ensure optimal drivability and emissions performance. With current calibration practices, an after-burn like abnormal engine noise was observed during certain transient driving patterns in cold to ambient temperature conditions. This paper presents a novel calibration methodology designed to eliminate such abnormal noise. The proposed approach involves a step-by-step transient calibration strategy refinement, making the calibration process more robust and adaptable to any driving behavior. The paper outlines the specific
Suna, Bhagyashree, Tyagarajan, Sethuramalingam, Pise, Chetan, Aishwarya, Amritansh
Analysis and Optimization of Stick-Slip Behaviour in Metal-Plastic Interfaces for Connected Tail Lamp Assemblies in Electric Vehicles2026-26-03321/16/2026
The seamless and sleek design of connected tail lamps adds a visually striking element to the car's exterior. It aligns with contemporary automotive trends and gives the vehicle a premium and futuristic appearance. Automakers use these lamps as a design signature to establish brand identity. Connected tail lamps improve visibility for drivers behind the vehicle. The assembly of connected tail lamps can pose several challenges, especially due to their complex design and integration requirements. Metal-plastic creak is a common concern in electric vehicles (EVs), often noticeable when driving on uneven roads. This primarily results from stick-slip behaviour at the interface of metal and plastic components, intensified by improper alignment. When the designed geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is not met in real manufacturing conditions, misalignment introduces unintended contact forces, leading to intermittent micro-sliding and frictional energy release, which manifests as an
MICHAEL STEPHAN, NAVIN ESTAC RAJA, C M, MITHUN, Mohammed, Riyazuddin
Mitigating Air Flow Sensor Signal Variability to Optimize Engine Operation in Passenger Cars2026-26-05121/16/2026
The need for advanced engine control systems has grown significantly in response to stricter emission regulations and increasing consumer demand for fuel-efficient passenger vehicles. Accurate estimation of intake air flow, coupled with precise fuel control, is essential to overcoming the challenges associated with modern gasoline engine performance. Hot-wire type mass air flow (MAF) sensors are commonly used for measuring intake air flow and are typically mounted on the clean side of the air intake system to protect them from contamination and extend their operational life. Reliable air flow measurement depends on maintaining a consistent and uniform flow across various engine speeds and load conditions. However, the optimal placement of the MAF sensor is often limited by engine packaging constraints, making sensor positioning a critical factor. Incorrect installation can result in inaccurate air flow readings, which negatively impact engine performance and emissions. During the
SONONE, SAGAR DINESH, Kale, Vishal, Kolhe, Vivek M
Flex-Fuel Technology for India: Challenges, Opportunities, and Compliance with Emerging Emission Norms2026-26-01091/16/2026
The adoption of flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) in India presents a significant opportunity to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and ensure compliance with the country’s evolving emission norms. This paper explores the key aspects of flex-fuel technology in the context of Indian four-wheeler regulations, particularly Bharat Stage VI and potential future norms. The study begins with an overview of flex-fuel technology, detailing its advantages and associated challenges. A critical focus is placed on blend identification techniques, which play a vital role in optimizing combustion efficiency and ensuring seamless transitions between different ethanol-gasoline blends. Furthermore, the impact of ethanol blending on various fuel properties is examined, including changes in energy content, latent heat of vaporization, octane number rating, and stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. These factors significantly influence engine performance and emission characteristics
Balasubramanian, Karthick, KR, Prabhakar, KALLAHALLI SOMU, SANTHOSH KUMAR
Development of Flex fuel Vehicle for Indian Market2026-26-01171/16/2026
This paper presents the methodology and outcomes of modifying a 1.2L naturally aspirated (NA) engine to enable flex-fuel compatibility, targeting optimal performance with ethanol blends ranging from E20 to E93. The road map for Ethanol Blending released by Govt of India call for progressively increase in ethanol blending in gasoline, with a target of 20% by April 2025. Ethanol is promoted as a renewable fuel due to its potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and provides an additional source of income for farmers. This work is in alignment with the broader push for development of flex-fuel vehicles, which necessitates engine adaptations capable of operating on varying ethanol blends. The primary objective was to retain the performance with E20 while mitigating the fuel consumption penalties when the vehicle is operating on higher ethanol concentrations upto E93. The engine upgrade incorporated key modifications, including optimizing the compression ratio, implementing Variable
Tyagarajan, Sethuramalingam, Pise, Chetan, Kavekar, Pratap, Agarwal, Nishant Kumar
Leveraging Telematics Big Data Analytics for Real-Time Monitoring of Catalytic Converter Failures and Root Cause Identification for Emission Compliance2026-26-05911/16/2026
The automotive industry is continuously evolving at high pace to meet rising customer expectations, reliability, reduced maintenance, and most relevant, compliance with stringent emission norms. Traditionally, the analysis of vehicle emissions relies heavily on periodic inspections and manual checks. These conventional methods are often time-consuming, prone to human error, and lack the ability to provide real-time insights. Also, identifying Catalytic converter failures due to non-manufacturing issues require meticulous physical inspections and historical data reviews, which are not always accurate or timely. Telematics or Connected cars technology being one of the major technological innovations in recent times revolutionizes these processes by enabling real-time data exchange between vehicles and external systems. The current study presents an innovative approach to utilizing telematics data for real-time monitoring of vehicle emissions and pinpointing Catalytic converter failures
DEV, Triyambak, Prasad, Kakaraparti Agam, Kalkur, Varun, Modak, Saikat, AGARWAL, Shashank, Chandra, Animesh, Paul, Varsha, Garg, Amit, Sundararaman, Venkataraman, Bose, Sushant
All New 1.2L Turbocharged Gasoline Direct Injection Engine from Tata Motors2026-26-00711/16/2026
A continuous stress on meeting stringent emissions regulations alongside rising consumer expectations for enhanced driving performance and refinement on powertrain applications on passenger cars. To address this customer aspirations Tata Motors has engineered the advanced 1.2L 3-cylinder turbocharged gasoline direct injection engine HYPERION. This next-generation powertrain is designed to maximize efficiency, lower emissions and deliver superior performance with improved noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) characteristics. Key innovations includes highly optimized fuel injectors injector operating at 35 MPa, CVO-3 (3rd Gen Controlled Valve Operation), Miller Cycle with Electrically actuated VGT turbocharger and an AI-enabled engine management system, which collectively enhances efficiency and performance. The exhaust after-treatment system incorporates a Three-Way Catalyst (TWC) and an integrated Four-Way Conversion Catalyst (FWC+TM) for efficient emission control. The BS6 phase 2
Hosur, Viswanatha, Ghadge, Ganesh Narayan, Joshi, Manoj, Jadhav, Aashish, Panwar, Anupam
Evaluation of Intercooler Effectiveness with No Fan, Single Fan, and Dual Fan: A Simulation and Experimental Study2026-26-05791/16/2026
Turbochargers play a crucial role in modern engines by increasing power output and fuel efficiency through intake air compression, thereby improving volumetric efficiency by allowing more air mass into the combustion chamber. However, this process also raises the intake air temperature, which can reduce charge density, lead to detonation, and create emissions challenges-such as smoke limits in diesel engines and knock in gasoline spark-ignited (GSL) engines. To mitigate this, intercoolers are used to cool the compressed air. Due to packaging constraints, intercoolers are typically long and boxy, limiting their effectiveness, especially at low vehicle speeds where ram air flow is minimal. This study investigates the use of auxiliary fans to enhance intercooler performance. Two methodologies were adopted: 1D simulation using GT-Suite and experimental testing on a vehicle under different fan configurations-no fan, single fan, and dual fans (positioned near the intercooler inlet and outlet
PATRA, SOMNATH, HIBARE, NIKHIL, Ganesan, Thanigaivel, Gharte, Jignesh Rajendra
Design and Optimization of Air Intake Manifold for 4cylinder 4valve Turbocharged CNG Engines: Enhancing Performance Metrics and Emission Compliance2026-26-01241/16/2026
This study presents the development and optimization of an air intake manifold for a 3-liter, 4-cylinder, 4-valve turbocharged engine operating on Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). The intake manifold plays a critical role in determining engine performance, directly influencing parameters such as power output, brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC), and emissions. A systematic design methodology was adopted, starting with standard design repository, which were refined through iterative improvements focused on manifold volume, runner geometry, injector location, and fuel injection pressure. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations were conducted to evaluate the influence of manifold geometry and injector positioning on air-fuel mixing. The analysis assessed three potential injector locations: the tangential port, the swirl port, and a common upstream point where air splits into individual intake runners. Among these, the common upstream point consistently demonstrated superior air
Lomada, Balaji, Vasudevan, Sindhuja, RAVI, HARIKRISHNAN, N, Harish, UG, Remesh
Analysis and optimization of noise and vibrational performance of an e-axle2026-26-03401/16/2026
As the electric mobility landscape evolves, there is a growing emphasis on addressing the Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) challenges associated with electric drivetrains. The absence of an IC engine in EVs shifts the focus to other noise contributors such as gear meshing, electric machine operation, and structural vibrations. Despite the known influence of micro-geometry on gear dynamics, current optimization practices often rely on empirical adjustments or standard guidelines without fully utilizing advanced computational methods to predict and optimize NVH performance. There exists a pressing need for a systematic approach to analyse and optimize gear micro-geometry to reduce noise and vibration in high-speed e-axle applications. This research aims to bridge that gap by investigating the relationship between micro-geometry optimization and NVH characteristics of an e-axle. Through detailed modelling and optimization techniques, this research aims to identify optimal gear micro
Ankit, Priyadarshi, KULKARNI, KRISHNA, Momin, Vaseem
Multispeed EV Transmission – Gear Shift Simulation and Validation2026-26-01571/16/2026
The advancement of electric vehicle (EV) transmission systems is currently a prominent trend aimed at decreasing carbon emissions and providing eco-friendly transportation alternatives. Most of the EV transmissions are single speed, but research conducted on multi speed EV transmissions show higher efficiency, good performance, high speed and torque demand when compared with single speed counterparts. Most of the multi speed EV transmissions that are developed are of non-synchromesh type, which have direct effect on NVH, driving dynamics and durability of drivetrain components. Due to aforementioned factors, gearshift analysis becomes critical for development. Simulation model is developed at early development phase for initial feedback. Using the feedback, drivetrain can be optimized furthermore and test on physical parts can be conducted for final verification. This paper provides a simulation based approach for modelling non-synchromesh two speed EV transmission using Simulation X
Patel, Hiral, Thambala, Prashanth, Sutar, Suresh, Todtermuschke, Karsten
Streamlined Methodology for E-Motor Performance Evaluation using a configurable Universal Inverter2026-26-05101/16/2026
Electric motor benchmarking is often constrained by limited availability of motor-specific data, particularly when dealing with commercially available or third-party electric motors. This paper presents a streamlined and scalable methodology for characterizing unknown eMotors using a configurable universal inverter platform. The proposed approach is specifically designed for OEMs and Tier 1 suppliers seeking to evaluate performance metrics such as torque accuracy, peak and continuous capability, efficiency, and control behaviour—without prior access to key motor parameters or simulation data. A central challenge in this context is the stepwise electromagnetic characterization required to determine the phase current needed for accurate speed and torque control, especially under a Maximum Torque per Ampere (MTPA) or Maximum Torque per Watt (MTPW) strategy. As this requirement is highly dependent on the motor’s topology and electromagnetic properties, most conventional approaches rely on
Kanya, Benjamin, Duchi, Francesco, Ravi, Abhishek
CAE Approach to Reduce Cylinder Head Development Cycle Time2026-26-04841/16/2026
Traditional engine cylinder head design processes using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) are often iterative and unsystematic. After initial FEA, Computer Aided Design (CAD) changes are implemented to improve initial results, and subsequent designs are explored to identify improved proposals using ad hoc criteria. This iterative process is complex and time-consuming, reducing the likelihood of finding an acceptable, highly durable design. To improve the traditional product development approach, a unique application of FEA techniques that involves morphing and sub modelling is presented in this paper. The study identifies a methodology to assess water jacket durability early in the design process to understand possible design solutions, reducing High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) risks. Critical HCF areas typically occur on the water jacket in the vicinity of the combustion dome, due to the tensile stresses induced by the thermal and combustion pressure loading. Critical areas are identified by
patil, Vijay Ganapati, Shi, Simon
Drive Cycle Type Identification Using Data Driven Methodologies2026-26-06491/16/2026
Identifying the type of drive cycle is crucial for analyzing customer usage and optimizing vehicle performance and emission control. Methods that rely on geographical location are limited by varying driving conditions at the same location (e.g., heavy traffic during peak hours vs. free-flowing traffic at night). This paper proposes a methodology to identify the type of drive cycle (city, interurban, highway or others) using drive characteristics derived from vehicle data rather than geographical location. Real-world vehicle data from testing trucks is taken, whose drive profiles are already known. Initially, multiple characteristic features of the drive cycle are identified from literature surveys and domain experiences. These features, which can be extracted from basic signal data, include gear shifts, time spent in different driving modes (acceleration, cruise, standstill), velocity distributions, and an 'aggressiveness factor' representing overall driving style. Using ML based
REDDY, MALLANGI PRASHANTH, Gorain, Raju, Ganguly, Gourav
A study of Electric motor configuration for Multi Axle Electric Heavy Duty Commercial Truck Application to attain maximum potential of Torque vectoring2026-26-00841/16/2026
As the air pollution level rises around the globe, the need for alternative sources of energy increases, and this need is applicable to automotive industry also. Commercial vehicles are one of the major sources of air pollution around the world as they have impactful applicability in our day to day life. With growing advancement in mobility solutions, commercial vehicles are undergoing transformation to improve efficiency, safety and performance. One of the emerging technologies is of torque vectoring which is a concept used to provide better traction and stability to the vehicle in different driving conditions and used in the vehicle having multi motor configuration. Advance torque vectoring concept coupled with electric motor can react to dynamic driving conditions by providing instant torque. The concept of torque vectoring can be useful for heavy commercial vehicles used in off-road applications such as mining because torque vectoring helps in better weight management, cornering
Agarwal, Pranjal, Chaudhari, Gitesh, Gangad, Vikas, Penta, Amar
Reverse Engineering and Digital Twins in Powertrain Design: Enhancing Performance and Sustainability2026-26-00651/16/2026
This study explores the application of reverse engineering (RE) and digital twin (DT) technology in the design and optimization of advanced powertrain systems. Traditional approaches to powertrain development often rely on legacy designs with limited adaptability to modern efficiency and emission standards. In this work, we present a methodology combining 3D scanning, computational modeling, and machine learning to reconstruct, analyze, and enhance internal combustion engines (ICEs) and electric vehicle (EV) drivetrains. By digitizing physical components through RE, we generate high-fidelity DT models that enable virtual testing, performance prediction, and iterative improvement without costly physical prototyping. Key innovations include a novel mesh refinement technique for scanned geometries and a hybrid simulation framework integrating finite element analysis (FEA) and multi-body dynamics (MBD). Our case study demonstrates a 12% increase in thermal efficiency for a retrofitted ICE
Bernikov, Mark Alexandrovich, Kurmaev, Rinat
Investigating Thermal Fatigue Cracks in Exhaust Manifolds of Longitudinally Mounted 1.2L 4-Cylinder Engines2026-26-04881/16/2026
This study addresses the challenge of ensuring the durability of closed couple exhaust manifolds in the compact engine bays of modern vehicles, focusing on a longitudinally mounted 1.2L 4-cylinder engine. The original sheet metal Exhaust manifold design failed thermal fatigue bench durability test, requiring a complete redesign to improve strength without changing materials. Initial simulation predictions significantly deviated from physical test results, with repeated cracks observed during accelerated thermal fatigue bench testing, despite simulations predicting a higher number of cycles before failure. This difference highlighted the need for a deeper understanding of the manifold's failure modes, primarily thermal fatigue, and mechanical vibration during engine transients. The design of experiment (DOE) approach was used to find the effect of different parameters e.g., gas temperature, surface temperature, air flow, thermal gradient, on the durability result & also to understand
Krishnan, K.S.Gopala, Mishra, Ashutosh, Yadav, Sanjay Kumar, Kumar, Deepak, Tripathi, Manas, kumar, prabhakar
Smart Stability: Dual-Mode Hill Hold and Parking Brake Strategy in Electric Tractors Using Motor Torque and Electro-Hydraulic Actuation2026-26-02051/16/2026
Operating tractors on Sloped Terrains presents safety challenges, especially during shuttle operations, loader use, or start-stop maneuvers at slopes. Unlike Diesel Counterparts, feedback from the prime mover (Motor) is minimal and silence often masks terrain feedback. Driver response tends to vary, leading to rollback & challenges to safety demanding skill & expertise for safe operation. Based on field observations across Mahindra tractor platforms, we identified start-stop maneuver task to be offloaded from the operator to improve control and consistency and take skill element out of picture. This paper outlines the approach derived based on dual-mode Hill Hold and Parking Brake system, developed using traction motor torque control and SAHR-based hydraulic braking via proportional valves. The VCU works at the heart of this system to dynamically choose between electric and hydraulic modes based on vehicle state, ignition, and motor conditions. Parking brake automation logic has been
M, Rojer, P, Velusamy, Natarajan, Saravanan, devakumar, Kiran, T, Ganesan, sundaram, Pavithra, Muniappan, Balakrishnan
Impact of density in simulation model for extreme cold ambient conditions2026-26-03881/16/2026
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) necessitate highly efficient thermal management strategies, as cabin heating directly consumes energy from the finite traction battery, potentially reducing driving range significantly. Early-stage design evaluations of warmup performance commonly rely on one-dimensional (1D) simulations due to their computational speed and efficiency. The accuracy and predictive capability of these models are critically dependent on how well they represent blower operation and account for temperature-induced variations in air density. This fidelity is essential because engineers depend on warmup simulations to set HVAC targets that will deliver real‑world comfort and defrost performance within stringent range constraints. Earlier, warmup simulations employed a Constant Mass Flow (CMF) approach, which simplifies computations by assuming a fixed air density at a standard reference temperature. However, this approach contrasts with real-world blower behavior, where
Subramanian, Karthik, Mishra, Abhishek
Performance Analysis of Filter Resistance, Louver Airflow, and Fan Heat Dissipation to protect Swapping station Charger2026-26-01771/16/2026
Efficient thermal management in electric vehicle (EV) charging stations is critical for ensuring the reliability, safety, and longevity of power electronics. This study presents a comprehensive bench test analysis of three key parameters influencing charger cooling efficiency: filter resistance, louver airflow, and fan heat dissipation. A test bench was developed to measure pressure drop, temperature gradients, and air velocity variations across multiple filter types, louver orientations, and fan configurations. The results show that higher-efficiency filters (e.g., HEPA, MERV13) significantly reduce airflow, increasing thermal stress on electronic components, while optimized louver angles improve directional airflow, reduce turbulence, and enhance cooling performance. High-performance axial and centrifugal fans with adaptive control mechanisms further contribute to effective heat dissipation, maintaining stable operating temperatures under varying load conditions. This study provides
S, Sri Saran, chinnanna, Manjunath, Ajith, Arjun, B, Viswanathan, Kulkarni, Mukund, R, Vigneshwaran, Dhachinamoorthi, Sivanantham
Wetting prediction of power train components under the influence moving components using smooth particle hydrodynamics2026-26-03841/16/2026
Passenger cars are subjected to extensive conditions ranging from driving through wet roads, water puddles, icy roads, and rain. This can affect the performance of different parts over time, one such aspect is the vehicle corrosion, whose impact is felt on a wide spectrum from aesthetics to safety due to loss of material. The general condition for corrosion mainly requires electrolyte to be present on the metal surface, which is transported through self-soiling and foreign soiling. Vehicle soiling is an important aspect for vehicle design. Amongst the many aspects of vehicle soiling, one important aspect is the prediction of water accumulation that enables prediction of corrosion sensitive regions in the vehicle. Power train components like Engine, transmission and corresponding wiring harness are at highest risk of water-wetting, As the vehicle drives through the water pool the components are not just wet by the direct inflow of water but also by water being splashed by moving
Shukrey, Sarthak, Pattankar, Rohan, Yenugu, Srinivasa
Testing Methodology to Calculate the Fuel Economy in Km/Kg of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) based on Current (Ampere) Method and Flow Method2026-26-02481/16/2026
The globe is looking headlong to set up new benchmarks for the reduction of GHG (Green House Gases) considering short-term and long-term strategies. Efforts in the Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) domain have been accelerating to find an alternative way to reduce harmful emissions. Hydrogen is considered as a promising fuel to leapfrog this transition. Hydrogen fuel can be categorized into vast mobility areas viz. ICE and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV). Hydrogen fuel has attracted global attention from engine researchers due to the crude oil crisis and its rise in prices in recent years. This will serve the nation's goal towards carbon neutrality. Hydrogen has a few advantages such as less fueling time, higher heating value and more efficiency making it an eye-touching fuel for the automotive industry. In the contemporary FCEV segment, many fuel cell technologies have evolved, wherein the development of Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell technology has taken a new height for
JOSHI, ASHISH RAJENDRA, Kandalgaonkar, Siddhesh, Pawar, Yogesh
Calibration strategies to overcome the Challenges for Naturally Aspirated Off-Highway Engines for Trem-V emissions2026-26-02101/16/2026
The transition to Trem V emission norms presents significant challenges for naturally aspirated (NA) off-highway engines. Off-highway applications like construction and agriculture segments require high load variability and extended duty cycles with increased BMEP resulting in high PM emissions, and increased exhaust temperatures with lower lambda levels. Given the cost-competitive nature of the segment, it also requires designing leaner intake and exhaust system. To overcome above mentioned challenges, holistic calibration strategies need to be adapted during development phase. To meet Trem V emission norms, solutions like advanced combustion, high-pressure fuel injection, EGR (exhaust gas recirculation), and optimized calibration had to be explored in meeting Trem V emission norms with aftertreatment systems like Diesel Particulate Filters and Diesel oxidation catalysts. Implementation of aftertreatment systems for Trem-V introduces this segment with pre-dominantly with naturally
Patil, Madhavi M., Madhukar, Prahlad, Ravukutam Sr, Aniketh, Raghu, M Y
Simulation driven design of robust Crank-train systems for elevated In-cylinder combustion pressure2026-26-04001/16/2026
The need for increased in-cylinder pressure to meet the higher engine rating and stringent emissions norms requires special attention on the Main moving components torsional behaviour and the bearing performance. The work presented in this paper utilizes the 1D and 3D simulation potential of AVL EXCITE for the assessment of design changes required in Crank-Train system for the increased in-cylinder pressure from 170bar to 220bar. The key feature of the executed work was that all the design changes were accommodated with minimal changes in packaging / layout interfaces. The given work was executed on 6-Cylinder Turbocharged In-cylinder with Type V valve-train configurations. Initial brain storming & 0d calculation helped in understanding the design optimization required in each and every crank-train parts. Considering the guidelines available in terms of L/d ratio for the bearing, connecting rod length, the overall linkage specification was set up for starting with design work for
Khandelwal, Meha
Dynamic Prime Mover Management for Enhanced Energy Efficiency in Electric Tractors2026-26-01851/16/2026
Electric tractors present unique opportunities for efficient power management by decoupling traction and auxiliary loads. In the proposed system, two independent electric motors are employed: one dedicated to vehicle traction and the other to drive the power take-off (PTO) and hydraulic functions, including steering and auxiliary attachments like loaders. Hydraulic flow demand directly impacts operational productivity; traditionally, hydraulic flow is linked to engine speed, requiring frequent manual adjustments. This paper proposes an innovative dynamic control strategy that optimizes motor speed based on real-time application demands, introducing three distinct modes: Low Idle Mode, Loader Mode, and PTO Mode. The Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) at the heart in coordination with the Farm Machinery Control Unit (FMCU) and Motor Control Unit (MCU), dynamically selects the appropriate mode based on user inputs such as PTO activation and joystick controls Low Idle Mode minimizes energy usage
Natarajan, Saravanan, P, Shanmugavel, M, Rojer, Joshi, Priyanka, sundaram, Pavithra
Accelerating engine auxiliaries’ development by deploying ML techniques in CFD virtual verification2026-26-03741/16/2026
The automotive and off-road industries are heavily investing in research and development (R&D) to improve both physical and virtual verification and validation techniques. Recent software and hardware advancements have extended these techniques from simple component evaluations to complex system assessments such as involving multi-physics scenarios. Despite the benefits of virtual validation tools like structural analysis and computational fluid dynamics (CFD), they often come with high development costs, particularly in CFD applications. Virtual verification methodology, especially when combined with data science, offer significant advantages over traditional physical methods by enhancing computer-aided engineering (CAE) efficiency and reducing resource consumption which can greatly improve product design and validation efficiency across many industries. The success of machine learning applications depends on effective data processing, adequate computational resources, and the right
Jadhav, Mitali, Kumbhar, Appaso, Tirumala, Bhaskar, Nisha, Kumari
Comprehensive Durability Assessment of Planet Carrier in Heavy-Duty Tipper Gearboxes Using RLDA Torque Data2026-26-04431/16/2026
In heavy-duty tippers, where challenging conditions demand high torque, planet carriers play a crucial role by enabling efficient load distribution and torque transmission while supporting gear ratio and speed variation in space-constrained systems such as automatic transmissions, hybrid drivetrains, and electric vehicles. This paper focuses on the comprehensive durability performance assessment of planet carriers using duty cycles derived from RLDA measurements for a heavy-duty tipper gearbox development program. The existing Design Validation Plan (DVP) for the planet carrier considers first gear utilization of 10-15% at 40% vehicle overload, in line with historical data. However, recent trends in mining applications revealed vehicle overloads of 55-65%, leading to an increase in first gear utilization (25-35%). This shift presents challenges for OEMs to enhance design durability while incorporating additional safety margins to meet the demands of a competitive, cost-driven market
Bagane, Shivraj, Pendse, Ameya
Total cost of ownership analysis of fuel cell and hydrogen-powered commercial vehicles for cost competitiveness with ICE and BEV2026-26-02541/16/2026
Worldwide, the automotive industry is pivoting towards electrification and zero-emission vehicles (ZEV) to address greenhouse gas emissions and to meet net-zero emission goals. Although pure electric vehicles with rechargeable high-voltage batteries seem to be the most popular choice to achieve climate goals, hydrogen-powered vehicles are also seen by many as a viable technology to clean up the transportation sector. Hydrogen fuel cells and fuel cell-powered vehicles have been in development for a long time, and hydrogen internal combustion engines (ICE) have seen rapid development in the past few years. While the technological feasibility of hydrogen fuel cells and H2 ICE is being proven, mass adoption of these technologies depends, along with other factors such as hydrogen infrastructure, upon financial feasibility as well. This paper presents a systematic analysis of the total cost of ownership (TCO) of hydrogen-powered vehicles, especially fuel cell electric vehicles. Different
Jacob, Joe, Chougule, Abhijeet
Development of a Passive Regeneration Diesel Particulate Filter System for an Agricultural tractor Engine2026-26-02171/16/2026
This paper presents the development and evaluation of a passive regeneration Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) system for a 4-cylinder, 3.18-liter naturally aspirated agricultural tractor engine based on the mDI engine family. The primary objective is to significantly reduce particulate matter (PM) emissions while maintaining optimal engine performance and fuel economy. The passive regeneration DPF system leverages the engine's operating conditions to generate sufficient heat for the oxidation of trapped particulate matter, eliminating the need for active regeneration techniques. The paper details the design process, including the selection of DPF material, filter geometry, and integration into the exhaust system. Rigorous experimental testing was conducted to assess the performance of the DPF system under various engine load and speed conditions. Results demonstrate substantial reductions in PM emissions without compromising engine power, torque, or specific fuel consumption. This
Maddali, Varun Suman, Jidigonti, Shashank, Kannan, S, Ramesh, Natrajan
1D Simulation Approach for Common Rail Injection Systems for a Marine 2 Stroke Diesel Engine2026-26-03951/16/2026
This study presents a comprehensive 1D simulation approach of an automotive solenoid-based diesel fuel injector and a common rail injection system for a marine engine using Simcenter AMESim. The injector model was developed to analyse the injection rate and total injected fuel at various solenoid actuation durations (1.2 ms and 2.0 ms) and common rail pressures. The experimental results from a well-established research study are used for validating the simulation results of the solenoid-based injector. The model demonstrates strong agreement at higher rail pressures (above 1000 bar) and solenoid actuation times. Building on this validated injector model, a detailed marine common rail system was developed incorporating key hydraulic components: a check valve to maintain pressure inside the rail, flow limiting valves to prevent overpressure in the fuel injector, and a combination pressure relief valve. The simulation was used to study rail pressure dynamics at full engine load for
Bhoware, Yash, Pise, Uday, Saha, Dipta, Gaikwad, Nilesh
Failure Investigation and Geometric Optimization of Torsional Vibration Damper for Enhanced Durability and Noise Reduction in Automotive Drivetrain Systems2026-26-03501/16/2026
Internal Combustion engines exhibit multi-order vibrations caused by the inertial forces of reciprocating masses. These vibrations induce drivetrain resonance, negatively impacting occupant comfort and the durability of drivetrain components. Torsional vibrations, a critical subset of these oscillations, demand efficient damping mechanisms. Torsional Vibration Dampers are instrumental in minimizing such vibrations by tuning mass and frequency characteristics to prevent resonance. By splitting resonant frequencies into avoidable zones within the engine's operational range, TVD enhance vehicle performance and refinement by dampening the vibrations. Structurally, TVD comprise an inertia ring integrated with a damping medium, such as vulcanized rubber, which attenuates torsional oscillations by permitting controlled oscillation of the inertia ring. This study focuses on the failure investigation and the geometric optimization of oscillating masses of TVD for performance and durability
WANI, SUJIT ASHOK, S, Manickaraja, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Senthil Raja, T, Vellandi, Vikraman, Patil, Dilip
Simulation Based Approach to Optimize Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal System2026-26-03761/16/2026
The performance and longevity of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles are significantly influenced by the cell temperature. Hence, efficient thermal management techniques are essential for battery packs. Simulation based optimization approaches can enhance these techniques during early product development and life cycle. In this work, a method to optimize the battery thermal system comprising of cooling plate and external insulation is described. The first part is to optimize the cell heat extraction by the cooling plate. The heat transfer coefficient of the coolant is a parameter which can indicate the thermal efficiency of a cooling plate. At the same time, it's important to keep the coolant pressure drop within a reasonable limit. A 1D simulation methodology is described to optimize the cooling channel height based on pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient targets. This methodology is based on empirical correlations and multi-objective pareto optimization. The advantage of
U, Reghunath, P S, Shebin
Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue Assessment of Cylinder Heads Using Advanced Simulation Techniques2026-26-04651/16/2026
Thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) is a critical durability concern for cylinder heads in internal combustion engines, particularly under severe cyclic thermal and mechanical loads. TMF-induced damage often initiates in geometrically constrained regions with high thermal gradients and can significantly reduce component life. As performance demands increase, understanding and mitigating TMF becomes essential to ensure the structural integrity and long-term reliability of engine components. This study presents a simulation methodology for evaluating thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF), a temperature-dependent low-cycle fatigue (LCF) mechanism that arises from repeated thermal expansion and contraction under mechanical constraints, leading to cyclic plastic deformation and damage. The methodology consists of two key phases. Phase I involves global finite element (FE) simulations—both thermal and structural—to obtain temperature and displacement fields under rated and idle engine conditions
Ghotekar, Sunil, Kumbhar, Dipak Madhukar, Pendse, Ameya
Optimising Hydrogen Engine Performance: A Comparative Study of Lean and Stoichiometric Calibration Approach2026-26-02611/16/2026
Hydrogen combustion in internal combustion engines offers numerous advantages, such as zero CO2 emissions and high flame speed, which make it a promising alternative fuel for green vehicle solutions. In order to maximize the engine performance with hydrogen, however, meticulous calibration of the air-fuel mixture must be performed, particularly when lean and stoichiometric combustion conditions are considered. Lean burning, i.e., excess air, offers better thermal efficiency and lower NOx emissions but can cause lower engine power and combustion instability. Stoichiometric combustion, however, ensures a complete fuel-air mixture but at the cost of higher combustion temperature and high NOx emissions. Calibration strategies for hydrogen engines are presented in this paper by comparing the lean and stoichiometric strategies and their implications on engine power output, efficiency, and emissions. Test data from several hydrogen engine configurations demonstrate that lean burn with EGR
Jadhav, Ajinkya, Bandyopadhyay, Debjyoti, Sutar, Prasanna S, Sonawane, Shailesh Balkrishna, Rairikar, Sandeep D, Thipse, Sukrut S
Assessment and Auralization of Cabin Noise from AVAS Operation in an Electric Vehicle Using a Hybrid BEM–SEA Methodology2026-26-03571/16/2026
In electric and hybrid vehicles, sound package optimization can follow a classical, proven, and structured approach for real-world loads, while also considering new transmission paths that might differ from those in traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. However, AVAS-induced interior noise is sometimes underestimated and therefore not taken into account during the optimization process. Nevertheless, especially at very low speeds, the presence of the AVAS can be perceived as an unwanted noise inside the vehicle, potentially compromising interior comfort. In this study, a hybrid boundary element–statistical energy analysis (BEM – SEA) approach is applied to an SEA dual-motor electric vehicle demonstrator model equipped with a baseline, standard sound package to assess AVAS-induced interior noise. A standard AVAS actuator is modeled, and a BEM model is used to compute the sound pressure levels on the exterior subsystems of the vehicle. These results are then transferred to the
Fiedler, Robert, Calloni, Massimiliano, Martin, Simon
Experimental evaluation of Energy and Exergy of Hydrogen, CNG and Gasoline fuelled High-Speed Spark Ignition Engine2026-26-02581/16/2026
HIGHLIGHTS The maximum power is recorded with Gasoline than CNG and Hydrogen fuel. The maximum exergy and energy efficiency is with Hydrogen, followed by CNG and then Gasoline. Hydrogen fuel has a maximum potential to convert into energy. The maximum energy destruction of 48.7kW for gasoline fuel at 3000 rpm and followed by CNG and hydrogen. The maximum entropy generation of 85.5 W/K with Gasoline and 60.72 W/K and 29.39W/K for CNG and hydrogen engine respectively at 10000 rpm. The entropy generation rate increase with engine speed. The highest rate of heat release is from hydrogen fuel, followed by Gasoline and CNG.   ABSTRACT- The analysis was performed on a single Cylinder, Multivalve, Electronic Fuel Injection, high-speed motor fuelled engine with Gasoline, CNG and Hydrogen to assess energetic and exegetic performance. The engine was evaluated from 3000 rpm to 10000 rpm on each of the three fuels. All tests are led at Wide Open Throttle condition.The Gasoline and CNG
shinde, Apurwa Balasaheb, SHINDE, DR BALU, Kadam, Tushar, karunamurthy, K
Development of high BMEP natural gas engine with knock mitigation2026-26-01211/16/2026
The stringent emission norms over the past few years have driven the need to use low carbon fuels and after treatment technology. Natural gas is a suitable alternative to diesel for heavy duty engines with applications in power generation and transportation sectors. Stoichiometric combustion mode offer the advantages of complete combustion and low carbon dioxide emissions. The combination of turbocharging and cooled exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technology enhances the power density along with reduced exhaust emissions simultaneously. However, there are several constraints in the operation of natural gas spark ignition engine such as exhaust gas temperature (EGT) limit of 750 °C, sufficient before turbine (BT) pressure for EGR drivability, boost pressure (2.5 bar), peak cylinder pressure limit and knocking. These limits may restrict the brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of the engine. In the present study, tests were conducted on a V12, 24 litre, dedicated heavy duty natural gas
Khaladkar, Omkar, Marwaha PhD, Akshey
Impact of Virtual ECUs on Software Development and Validation Using the Shift Left Strategy2026-26-06811/16/2026
The automotive industry is undergoing a transformative shift with the integration of Virtual Electronic Control Units (vECUs) in software development and validation processes. Physical ECUs require actual hardware setups, which can be expensive, time-consuming to configure, and may not be readily available during early development stages. This abstract presents the application of a Level 3 vECU to enable early-stage testing in alignment with the Shift Left Strategy, thereby reducing development time and cost. The developed vECU includes production-intent code for the Application Software (ASW), Runtime Environment (RTE), Basic Software (BSW), and Operating System (OS), while adapting the Microcontroller Abstraction Layer (MCAL) and Complex Device Drivers (CDD) for the virtual environment. The vECU replicates the functional behavior of a physical ECU and supports standard automotive communication protocols such as CAN, LIN, Ethernet and FlexRay, allowing system-level validation in a
Bhopi, Amey, Sengar, Bhan
Controls Solutions for Commercial Hydrogen Engines2026-26-01121/16/2026
India’s commitment to carbon neutrality is significantly shaping the future architecture of commercial vehicle powertrains. While the use of CO₂-free technologies such as battery-electric drivetrains has already been successfully demonstrated across various applications, challenges related to limited range and the lack of high-power charging infrastructure continue to hinder widespread adoption, particularly for productivity-critical commercial vehicles. This has shifted the spotlight toward sustainable fuels, which offer the advantage of fast refueling times. Among these, hydrogen internal combustion engines (H₂ ICE) have gained increasing attention in recent years. In regions such as the European Union, the primary motivation for hydrogen is CO₂ reduction. In contrast, for markets like India, hydrogen also presents a strategic opportunity for reducing dependency on fossil fuel imports. Over the past four years, AVL has carried out multiple performance and emission development
Arnberger, Anton, Danninger, Alois, Mannsberger, Stefan, Breitegger, Bernhard
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