Browse Topic: Drivetrains

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Machine Learning Approach to ISO Road Class Prediction Using Multiple Linear Regression2026-26-06671/16/2026
The inertial profiler methodology is traditionally employed in RLDA (Road Load Data Acquisition) to measure road profiles and classify test routes into ISO road classes. However, this approach demands significant time and effort during instrumentation. Also, during data acquisition, laser height sensor data is affected especially during adverse conditions such as rainy seasons or on surfaces with improper reflectivity. Additionally, substantial resources are required for data processing to convert raw measurements into road classifications. To address these challenges, an initial attempt was made to establish a relationship between axle acceleration responses and road profiles, enabling axle acceleration measurements during RLDA to predict ISO road classes. However, this approach relied on a simple linear model that considered only axle acceleration responses, rendering the predictions susceptible to inaccuracies due to varying parameters such as vehicle speed. To overcome these
P, Praveen Kumar, P, Dayalan, Sriramulu, Yoganandam
Propeller Shaft Yoke Phase and Inclination angle Optimization in Passenger Vehicles through Analytical Method2026-26-03481/16/2026
Customer satisfaction is the most important parameter to achieve the success in the highly competitive automobile industry. Comfortable ride and handling are one of the important aspects for customer viewpoint. Propeller shaft is the critical components in the vehicle to affect the smooth operation of the vehicle. Propeller shaft universal joint (UJ) phase and inclination angle significantly affect the vehicle performance during frequent braking and acceleration. So, for this conditions, comprehensive study of the propeller shaft should be performed for smooth operation. In this paper, Propeller shaft UJ phase and inclination angle optimization is studied through analytical method, which are very essential parameter for optimizing induced vibration performance and comfort. Propeller shaft characteristics influenced by several factors like vehicle torque, propeller shaft joint type, materials properties, UJ phase and inclination angle and shaft unbalance value. By optimizing the above
Kumar, Sarvesh, Sanjay, L, S, Manickaraja, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj
Multispeed EV Transmission – Gear Shift Simulation and Validation2026-26-01571/16/2026
The advancement of electric vehicle (EV) transmission systems is currently a prominent trend aimed at decreasing carbon emissions and providing eco-friendly transportation alternatives. Most of the EV transmissions are single speed, but research conducted on multi speed EV transmissions show higher efficiency, good performance, high speed and torque demand when compared with single speed counterparts. Most of the multi speed EV transmissions that are developed are of non-synchromesh type, which have direct effect on NVH, driving dynamics and durability of drivetrain components. Due to aforementioned factors, gearshift analysis becomes critical for development. Simulation model is developed at early development phase for initial feedback. Using the feedback, drivetrain can be optimized furthermore and test on physical parts can be conducted for final verification. This paper provides a simulation based approach for modelling non-synchromesh two speed EV transmission using Simulation X
Patel, Hiral, Thambala, Prashanth, Sutar, Suresh, Todtermuschke, Karsten
EVALUATION OF DRIVELINE NVH PERFORMANCE USING LINEAR DYNAMIC FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION2026-26-03221/16/2026
Automotive driveline design plays an important role in the NVH characteristics of the overall vehicle. Driveline systems are an integral part of delivering torque from the engine/transmission to the tires which propel the vehicle and drivelines often experience a wide frequency of excitation which poses unique NVH challenges. With the increasing trend in the automotive industry to introduce turbocharged engines with fewer cylinders while delivering the same torque / power, the driveline systems are excited with increased lower frequency torsional vibration in addition to other vibrations transmitted from powertrain and road. In this paper, we address the key design consideration for developing an optimal driveline system with consideration to NVH while keeping durability and other functional requirements in perspective. We consider the example of a front wheel drive-based vehicle architecture with independent suspension. The effect of fundamental prop shaft frequency to determine
JOSHI, ATUL KAMALAKARRAO, Subramanian, MANOJ
Correlation of Power Rating for Battery Electric Vehicles Simulation vs. Test Validation in Accordance with regulatory compliance2026-26-05751/16/2026
Accurate power and energy assessment in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) requires high-fidelity simulation models that reflect real-world performance. This study presents a power rating correlation of the Stellantis Dodge model in compliance with the GTR 21 standard, validating the simulation’s accuracy against physical test data. Simulations conducted using STLAsim, Stellantis’ proprietary tool, estimate EDM power at the inverter input and axle output under standardized conditions. The operating parameters were shared with the testing team to ensure consistency; however, the initial test results deviated by approximately 18 kW from the simulation target. To address this delta, EDM speed and vehicle speed were optimized, achieving a close alignment with the simulation and meeting the GTR 21 power rating criteria. The results demonstrate a strong correlation between the simulation and test data, confirming the model’s accuracy and reliability. This study underscores the effectiveness of
Mahajan, Prasad, ali, Shoaib
Revolutionary EV Motors Innovation in E-mobility in Depth Analysis of Emerging Technologies, Comparative Insights & Their Ground Breaking Impact on Electric Vehicle Performance2026-26-00731/16/2026
This paper delivers a forward-looking data-driven assessment of the transformative innovation in electric vehicle motor systems with targeting breakthroughs in the power density, energy efficiency, thermal robustness, manufacturability & better intelligent control. A rigorous Multi Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) framework is done to systematically evaluate and defining the rank of emerging motor technologies across eight weighted performance indicators. The findings reveal that which design strategies & material advancements offering the greatest potential for redefine propulsion performance that enabling lighter more compact & more efficient drivetrain capable of sustained high power operation. High ranking solution exhibit strong alignment with the industry's push toward scalable, low cost & rare earth-independent systems while other are identified as high risk/high reward pathway requiring targeted research to overcome critical problems. By integrating engineering performance
Jain, Gaurav, PREMLAL, P, Pathak, Rahul, Gore, Pandurang
Novel Approach for Predicting Steering Rack Load Using Multibody Simulation2026-26-03781/16/2026
In the initial stages of a vehicle development program, the sizing of various components is a critical deliverable. The steering system, in particular, requires a precise estimation of the rack load for the appropriate sizing of the rack and assist units. Accurately predicting the load on the system during the early stages of development is challenging, especially in the absence of benchmark or legacy data. Commonly used processes for estimating parking steering effort often employ simplistic approaches that may fail to account for parameters such as tire size, vertical stiffness, and steering geometry, leading to reduced accuracy. This paper introduces an advanced methodology for predicting steering rack loads, which incorporates considerations such as contact patch size and pressure variation, as well as the tire jacking effect. The methodology involves mathematical modeling of the contact patch using mesh-grids, utilizing common inputs available in the early stages of vehicle
Shirke, Umesh, Dabholkar, Aniruddh, bardia, Vivek, Srivastava, Harshit, PRASAD, TEJ PRATAP
Modelling and Analysis of Hypoid Gear Churning Loss in Rear Drive Axle: The Role of Oil Viscosity and Empirical Parameters2026-26-05081/16/2026
This definitive study investigates the variation of churning losses occurring with hypoid ring and pinion gear sets and puts primary importance to factors that determine energy dissipation in these mechanisms. A detailed investigation shows that viscosity is critical, particularly due to large temperature-dependent variations. Besides this, the study focuses on particular attention to experimental parameters derived from measured data to model churning losses. Churning Loss itself originates in the interaction between the rotation of the gears and the lubricating oil - a source of significant inefficiency within the overall drivetrain. A robust, comprehensive model has been formulated to take this into account. It does not only account for variable oil viscosity with temperature but integrates key empirical parameters that reflect observed behaviours in gear systems. The study adopts a multidimensional approach by considering the influence of various other factors. It investigates how
Khan, Aliya Javid, Praveen, Abhinav, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Jain, Saurabh Kumar, AP, Baaheedharan
Optimization of Propeller shaft design to eliminate Launch Undulation (Lateral shake) and Vibration level2026-26-03341/16/2026
During vehicle launches in 1st gear, a lateral shake (undulation) and a pronounced metallic hitting noise were observed in the underbody. The noise was identified as the propeller shaft's second universal joint (UJ) yoke striking the fuel tank mounting bracket. Sensitivity to these issues varied with acceleration inputs: light pedal input during a normal 1st gear launch on a flat road resulted in minimal undulation, whereas wide open throttle (WOT) conditions in 1st gear produced significant lateral shake and intensified hitting noise. Further investigation revealed that the problem persists across all gears and occurs consistently during normal driving conditions, with continuous impact between the propeller shaft yoke and the fuel tank mounting bracket. Extensive experimental measurements at the vehicle level indicated that these issues were primarily caused by the center-mounted propeller shaft joint deviating from its central position and rotating eccentrically under torque. This
Sanjay, L, S, Manickaraja, Kumar, Sarvesh, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Senthil Raja, T, B, Prem Prabhakar, M, Kiran
Design & Optimization of CV shaft system to address powertrain induced NVH issues2026-26-03361/16/2026
The automotive industry is a crucial sector that plays a significant role globally. Government policies have a profound impact on this automotive industry in defining the regulatory standards and emission controls. Such regulations incentivized automakers to invest in research and development complying those standards towards reduction of vehicle emission which intern result in higher torsional vibrations and excitations amplitudes. To address the rising NVH related concerns in driveline system. Drive shafts (CV shafts) is an important component in power-train system in vehicle. Drive shaft’s main purpose to transfer torque from engines to wheels at multiple speeds with different articulation angles. The roughness generated by the engine follows a transfer path from engine to transaxle and transaxle to half shafts in monocoque vehicles which generates discomfort to the drivers whenever the vehicle is driven. The roughness can also be addressed by proper design of driveshaft stiffness
M A, Abdul Azarrudin, Jayachandran, Suresh kumar, KUMAR, SHIVANI, Bhardwaj, Kinshuk, M, DEVAMANALAN, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj
Efficiency Enhancement of Electric Vehicle Drivetrains through Advanced Gearbox Strategies2026-26-00531/16/2026
In the pursuit of sustainable mobility solutions, optimizing drivetrain efficiency has emerged as a critical factor in enhancing the overall performance, reliability, and market acceptance of electric vehicles (EVs). This study specifically focuses on achieving efficiency improvements within the gearbox system of Electric Vehicles, a major contributor to mechanical losses in the drivetrain. Key technical strategies explored include the adoption of low-viscosity lubricants, utilization of low-friction bearings, incorporation of high-efficiency oil seals, and the application of low-loss gear designs. Collectively, these enhancements aim to reduce mechanical frictional losses, leading to tangible benefits such as increased vehicle driving range, reduced energy consumption, lower carbon emissions, and decreased long-term maintenance costs. In addition to component-level improvements, the study investigates the integration of a 2-speed gearbox within electric vehicles as a system-level
Agrawal, Devesh, Bhardwaj, Abhishek, Bhandari, Kiran Kamlakar
Power loss evaluation in 4WD axle and correlation with Testing results2026-26-01071/16/2026
In the tractor, the efficiency depends on the transmission system, of all the losses major contribution is given by the transmission elements. To improve the efficiency, it became crucial to monitor the areas of power losses. Power loss in transmission refers the reduction in amount of power which being generated from the engine source to the final drive elements. There are various parameters and factors influence this condition, analyzing those conditions helps in identifying & improving the higher contributing components for driveline power loss. This study presents a comparative analysis of theoretical and experimental data regarding power loss in the gear train of a 70HP 4WD front axle. The investigation incorporates theoretical power loss calculations for individual components, including the bevel gear, bearings, thrust washer and seal arrangements. To evaluate and validate the power losses in the 4WD axle, a Gear Train Endurance test was conducted in a controlled laboratory
Jayapal, Jayaraj, Mahapatra, Soumya Ranjan, Sethi, Suvendu Kumar, JOSHI, SHRIKANT, BANGE, PRASHANT
Simulation Driven Virtual Road Load and Accelerated Duty Cycle Generation for 3-Speed eAxle Systems2026-26-04011/16/2026
The transition from Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles to Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) introduces significant challenges in drivetrain development, particularly when historical road load data (RLDA) is unavailable. This research proposes a methodology for virtually generating and processing RLDA to evaluate the durability of a novel 3-speed electric axle (eAxle) system before physical prototype construction. By employing AVL Route Studio, we simulated diverse global driving conditions across urban, highway, and mixed terrains to generate high-frequency torque and speed data. Since the resulting millions of data points are impractical for direct fatigue assessment, we utilised Romax software to condense the virtual RLDA into an accelerated duty cycle while maintaining the original fatigue damage characteristics. Unlike traditional binning techniques that often mischaracterise load severity, our damage-matching approach ensures the condensed cycle accurately replicates gear
LIGADE, PRATIK, KHAN, Dr. NURUZZAMA MEHADI, Koona, Rammohan Rao
Adaptive Speed Gearbox Design for the UH-60A Helicopter with integrated Electric Variator and Frequency investigationF-0081-2025-03465/20/2025
This study presents the design, modeling, and simulation of an Adaptive Speed Gearbox (ASG) with integrated electric variator for the UH-60A Black Hawk helicopter. The proposed drivetrain architecture enables main rotor speed variation independently of turbine speed, addressing operational demands for enhanced efficiency, noise reduction, and performance flexibility. A comprehensive aero-thermal model of the turboshaft engine, a dynamic drivetrain model, and a variable-speed control strategy were developed and validated. The control approach employs a two-degree-of-freedom structure combining nullspace-based feedforward torque allocation and modal-weighted LQR feedback for vibration suppression. A similarity theory-based scaling method was employed to design a demonstrator gearbox, facilitating experimental validation under representative conditions. The results demonstrate the feasibility of the ASG concept and establish a foundation for future experimental investigations and
Scheu, Thomas, Weigand, Michael, Gross, Christopher, Poks, Agnes, Willinger, Reinhard
High-Speed Compound Rotorcraft Performance and DesignF-0080-2024-11505/7/2024
High-speed configurations are among the new emerging concepts that are currently expanding the scope of rotorcraft design. Especially in the field of defense technology research, the capability of a substantial increase in maximum velocity becomes more interesting. For instance, NATO project NGRC is considering this capability for a new medium utility rotorcraft. DLR supports these activities by its continuing defense technology research. In this study the benefits and drawbacks of a high-speed capability for a given mission scenario are analyzed. For that purpose, a contemporary configuration has been modeled, featuring a maximum velocity of 82 m/s (160 KTAS). The high-speed configuration meets with the same mission requirements, but with an increase of about 50% of maximum speed to 125 m/s (242 KTAS). All tasks in this study are conducted with DLRs integrated design environment IRIS. The high-speed configuration features an off-loaded main rotor, a wing, a propeller and a reduction
Weiand, Peter, Schwinn, Dominik, Atci, Kagan
Prediction of Structural Rotor Loads: When to Consider Drivetrain Dynamics?F-0080-2024-12095/7/2024
The constant, undisturbed rotor hub rotational speed is a commonly applied boundary condition and simplification in computational analyses of helicopter rotors. Revoking this simplification and considering rotor-drivetrain interactions in the hub's rotational degree of freedom can - but doesn't necessarily - improve the predictions of structural blade loads, especially in the lead-lag direction. To estimate the drivetrain's potential to influence the lead-lag loads, this paper proposes the systematic evaluation of the modified collective lead-lag modes. These eigenmodes, as well as the resulting modification of lead-lag loads in the aeromechanic simulation, are presented and compared for the rotordrivetrain configurations of the Eurocopter Bo105 and the Sikorsky UH-60A. The study focuses on understanding the drivetrain's influence rather than on making high fidelity predictions. In the Bo105 case, the drivetrain impact on the lead-lag moments is significantly more pronounced than for
Weiss, Felix
Dynamic Behaviour of a Rotorcraft Main Rotor System with Variable SpeedF-0080-2024-13685/7/2024
Current Rotorcraft Developments like under the Future Vertical Lift Program in the USA (e.g. Bell V-280, see figure 1) respectively RACER (Airbus Helicopters, see figure 2) and NextGENCivil Tiltrotor (Leonardo, see figure 3) in Europe deal with High-Speed Rotorcraft or Tiltrotor-/Tiltwing Aircraft. They can expand and optimize their performance by using a variable rotor speed either to adopt the rotor speed to high forward speed or to meet the different requirements of a rotor in Hover and Aircraft Mode of a Tiltrotor-/Tiltwing Aircraft. As the required speed range can not be covered by the turbine, TU Munich (Germany), TU Wien (Vienna, Austria), ADT - Advanced Drivetrain Technologies (Austria) and Zoerkler Gears (Austria) work in the transnational project "VARI-SPEED II" on a rotor system that can change the rotor speed via change of the ratio of the transmission (variable rotor speed with constant turbine speed). The project is based on the results of "VARI-SPEED" and the direct
Scheu, Thomas, Koch, Jonas, Poks, Agnes, Weigand, Michael
Optimization of Electrified, Variable Speed Drivetrain Concepts for Enhanced Vehicle PerformanceF-0080-2024-13155/7/2024
Hybrid-electric propulsion could provide numerous benefits for full-size rotorcraft, including reduced peak turbine power demand, reduced transmission system weight and complexity, and reduced operating costs. Variable speed electric motors, furthermore, could be configured to enable continuously variable rotor speed. Achieving these benefits requires accounting for coupling between the hybrid-electric drivetrain and vehicle performance within a large, unexplored design space. This paper presents a framework for simultaneous optimization of vehicle and electrified powertrain conceptual design using Geometric Programming (GP) methods. Four hybrid-electric powertrain architectures are evaluated relative to a baseline non-electrified powertrain for single main rotor, compound coaxial-rotor, and tiltrotor configurations. For designs with an upper limit on turbine power, electrification increases the maximum cruise speed for the compound coaxial-rotor configuration. Variation of the rotor
VanLandingham, Aaron, Bill, Robert, Smith, Edward, Hall, David
E-drive System Selection Criterion for EV Commercial and Passenger Vehicles Segments2024-26-02531/16/2024
Electric Vehicles are one of the promising technologies to curb the climate change by reducing CO2 emissions significantly. Electric vehicle component selection is a complex process which has to fulfil multiple requirements with trade-off between Performance & Efficiency, Efficiency & cost, Performance & NVH, etc. Hence, it's a challenge to select right E-Drive comprising Motor and overall gear ratio to meet EV program targets. This study focuses on criterion used for selecting an E-Drive system comprising Motor, MCU and overall gear ratio for Electric Vehicles in Commercial and Passenger segments. The automotive market in India is analysed and the most popular vehicles in CV and PV segments with comparable Kerb Weights have been identified; Small Commercial Vehicle (SCV), and Compact SUV. The criterion is based on vehicle performance, design, cost, and NVH and efficiency requirements. The simulations are done to estimate motor torque/power requirements & overall gear ratio meeting the
Shendge, Raman Suresh, Jadhav, Vaibhav V., Warule, Prasad, Wani, Kalpesh
Impact of Toe and Thrust Angle Misalignment on Roll Behaviour of a Heavy Commercial Road Vehicle2024-26-00561/16/2024
Heavy Commercial Road Vehicles (HCRVs) may be more susceptible to rollover incidents due to their higher centre of gravity position than passenger vehicles, and rollover is one of the significant causes of HCRV accidents. Therefore, variation in vehicle roll behaviour becomes crucial to the safety of an HCRV. Toe misalignment is a commonly observed phenomenon in HCRVs, and studying its impact on roll behaviour is important. In this work, the impact of the symmetric toe and thrust misalignment on the roll behaviour of an HCRV is analysed using IPG TruckMaker®, a vehicle dynamics simulation software. A ramp steer manoeuvre was used for the simulations, and the toe misalignment on a wheel was chosen from the range [−0.21°, 0.21°]. Variation in roll behaviour was quantified using the steering wheel angle at which one-wheel lift-off (OWL) occurred (SWA_L). Additionally, an analytical model was formulated to predict OWL and the model predictions were compared with the results from IPG
Chandran, Amarchand, Grandhe, Roshan, Mukhopadhyay, Arko, Sharma, Mitanshu, Shankar Ram, C S
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) analysis for e-motors and controllers of electric two-wheelers.2024-26-00981/16/2024
The Indian government has been promoting electric vehicles through various policy initiatives, such as offering incentives and subsidies to EV manufacturers and consumers, establishing charging infrastructure across the country, and setting ambitious targets for EV adoption. These measures aim to reduce the dependence on imported fossil fuels, mitigate air pollution, and promote sustainable mobility. As a result, the demand for electric vehicles across India is steadily increasing, and the country is emerging as a lucrative market for EVs globally. An electronically commuted brushless DC (BLDC) motor usually functions for traction in electric 2-wheelers. Electric vehicles need to comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements. During the EMC compliance of electric two-wheelers, it is certain that the BLDC motor and its controller play an important role. This paper presents the BLDC motor and controller’s Radiated Immunity (RI) and Radiated Emission (RE) performance at
Pawar, Sneha Ravindra, Desai, Manoj Madhukar
Experimental Evaluation of Metro Rail Bogie Frame through Bench Testing2024-26-03251/16/2024
Bogie frame is a main skeleton and structural member in railway system which is carrying all the loads such as Suspensions, Axles, wheels, car body, Motor, Gear box etc. The frame is subjected the exceptional and service stresses in Vertical, Longitudinal, Lateral and twist directions throughout the service life which should be withstand for a life span of 30 years without failure. The objective of this work is to estimate the structural integrity of the Metro rail bogie frame .This paper is the outcome of bench testing of metro rail bogie frame with the application of multiaxial loading in static and dynamic campaign through which stress data is collected with strain gauge sensors and correlated with the FEA results at design stage. This helps to verify and evaluate the design and validate the quality of metro rail frame as per the requirement specified in EN13749 European standard in early design stages.
Tormal, Uday Bapurao
Drivetrain pressure spike evaluation methodology & optimization: Simulation and Testing Correlation2024-26-02771/16/2024
This paper describes a simulation methodology developed for pressure spike evaluation and optimization of hydraulic system architecture for off-highway applications with hydraulically actuated clutch. This pressure spike leads to a very high torque spike in driveline components during clutch pop-up conditions in puddling operations. These torque spikes lead to potential failure of driveline components i.e. gear, shaft, bearing and torsional damper during sudden engagement events. To assess the hydraulic system performance during clutch pop-up cornering conditions is very challenging and leads to compromise on operator safety in the paddy field. It is essential to develop a simulation methodology in a virtual environment to understand the system behavior during clutch pop-up condition and impact of various hydraulic system parameters. This study adopts a model-based design approach for understanding hydraulic system pressure spike phenomenon and dynamic response. Pressure spike
Memane, Nilesh, Kumar, Suneel, Veerkar, Vikrant
Effect of Lift Axle suspension design on Heavy Commercial Vehicle Handling performance2024-26-00491/16/2024
The cost of fuels used for automobile are rising in India on account of high global crude oil prices. The fuel cost constitutes major portion of total cost of operation for Heavy commercial vehicles. Hence, the trend is to carry the goods transport through higher payload capacity rigid trucks that offer lower transportation cost per unit of goods transported. This is driving the design of multi-axle heavy trucks that have lift axles. In addition, improved network of highways and road infrastructure is leading to increase in average operating speed of heavy commercial vehicles. It has made increased focus on occupant as well as road safety while designing the heavy trucks. The load carried by lift axles is equivalent to the steered axle or drive axle. Hence, the analysis of lift axle suspension from the point of view of vehicle handling and stability is essential. There are two basic kinds of lift axle designs used in heavy commercial vehicles: caster steered lift axle having single
Vichare, Chaitanya Ashok, Raval, Chetan, Patil, Sudhir
Weight and Drivetrain optimization via Fuel pump & Vacuum Pump drive by engine camshaft in a pushrod type valve actuated engine.2024-26-00461/16/2024
Optimizing weight, cost and friction is critically focused in most modern powertrains. Lesser components in drive trains makes the systems` lightweight and more efficient. This paper explains the idea of integrating a fuel pump and a vacuum pump drive system on to the main camshaft eliminating many rotating & static parts in a two valve per cylinder push-rod type actuated 4-cylinder diesel engine, thereby reducing overall weight, cost and drive losses. The modified camshaft will now drive oil pump, vacuum pump, fuel pump and valve train together. The existing camshaft is extended with a slot at one end and a three lobed cam made of higher grade material is press fitted on to the said portion with an additional journal bearing face added. Proposed camshaft design is evaluated for handling higher power transmission considering multiple drives are connected. Design verification simulations are run including High cycle fatigue, camshaft bearing EHD, Timing drive dynamics to ensure all
John, Shijino Shaji, Sasikumar, K
Comparative study of bending loads on rear axles of heavy commercial vehicles for two different real leaf spring configurations2024-26-03741/16/2024
In commercial vehicles, leaf springs play a major role in designing the suspension system. Leaf springs are the mostpopular designs having multiple leaves in contact with each other and show hysteresis behavior when loaded and unloaded. The leaf spring acts as a linkage for holding the axle in position and thus separate linkages are not necessary. It makes the construction of the suspension simple and strong. Because the positioning of the axle is carried out by the leaf springs, it is disadvantageous to use soft springs i.e. springs with low spring constant. Leaf springs are excellent in suspending large loads, since they are designed using 'bending beam' equations. The stiffness of the leaf spring assembly can be altered as desired, by changing the number of leaves. The objective of this paper is to compare the bending loads coming at the rear wheel centers of the vehicle when it runs in torture track and over a single bump. Bending loads were compared for the same rear suspension
Korrayi, Rajesh, Dixit, Vishnu
Electro-Hydraulically controlled Steerable Rear axle for commercial vehicles2024-26-03881/16/2024
This paper presents the hydraulically actuated and electronically controlled rear axle steering system developed indigenously for defence vehicle. Some defence applications required vehicles with long wheel base and deck length for the system to assemble on the chassis. For these vehicles, the steering system requirement mainly the turning circle diameter requirements are very stringent. To meet these requirement, vehicle steering system is divided in two parts- front steering (Traditional) and rear steering. This rear steering is controlled by electronic controller based on the inputs from front wheel angles from front angle transducers and vehicle speed from vehicle CAN system. With these inputs the electronic controller regulates the flow in hydraulic valve block received from primary tandem pump to steering cylinders for required stroke length to turn the rear wheels. Further, there are angle transducers on the rear axles which sends feedback signal to electronic controller, that
chikate, abhishek, Mane, Akshata Dattatray, Kumar, Ganesh, Singh, Dhirendra, Sou Mandal, Pranab, Patjoshi, Sarthak
Unique Optimization Approach of Axle Component and it’s Weld Life Improvement2024-26-03161/16/2024
Axles are a prominent part of automotive design. Along with a power transmission and differential system, axles support a vehicle’s weight and road-load reactions. Axles carry different attachments such as brakes and suspensions using brackets. Welds play an important role in design and longevity of bracket assemblies. Welds can be susceptible to fractures caused by intrusions akin to cracks and/or discontinuities, compounded by stress concentration due to weld profile and welding processes. Additionally, the simultaneous optimization of both brackets and welds remains a challenge with limited available methods. While topography or shape optimization techniques can enhance bracket robustness by minimizing compliance as the objective, this approach might inadvertently elevate the likelihood of weld fracture if weld dimensions are not concurrently updated. In this endeavor, compliance is used to improve weld life without affecting bracket robustness by using the Vertex Morphing
Wagh, Pranav, Sutar, Mohan, Nilangekar, Abhijit
Data-Driven Toe Misalignment Detection in Single-Unit Twin-Axle Trucks2024-26-02781/16/2024
Toe misalignment detection and its correction are important periodic tasks recommended by Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) for Heavy Commercial Road Vehicles (HCRVs) to prevent premature tyre wear and improve fuel economy. Existing misalignment detection methods need skilled professionals to operate sophisticated equipment, while automated methods require additional sensors, which are not readily available in most trucks, making their implementation challenging. This study explores the effectiveness of a data-driven method to detect toe misalignment in single-unit twin-axle trucks with symmetric and asymmetric toe configurations. This method involves continuous monitoring of lateral dynamics variables measurable using sensors present in most trucks making it practically tractable. Ramp steer manoeuvres with a 45◦ steering angle and a rise time of 3 seconds in two directions (clockwise and anticlockwise) for two toe configurations (symmetric and asymmetric) constituted the four
Burande, Kalyani, Grandhe, Roshan, Mukhopadhyay, Arko, Sharma, Mitanshu, Shankar Ram, C S
Detection of unintended vehicle behaviour for driver safety2024-26-01061/16/2024
The functional safety of electric vehicles has attracted a great deal of attention among automobile industries globally. A tricky yet necessary dual gamut of operational ease along with operational safety is something that cannot be ignored while using electric vehicles. Safety paired with vehicle reliability will go a long way in the market. Therefore, abnormal vehicle behavior due to factors such as unintended acceleration should not be kept in hind sight. Unintended acceleration is a phenomenon where the vehicle accelerates involuntarily without the knowledge of the driver which leads to accidents and fatal injuries. Thus, prior detection of unintended acceleration becomes mandatory for driver’s safety. Unintended acceleration is a result of various uncontrolled conditions like road driving conditions and system malfunction. This paper aims to estimate the load torque of a vehicle by utilizing the vehicle drive train model thereby ensuring the timely detection of unwanted
Ghube, Aditya Purushottam, Chauhan, Abhisha, Nidubrolu, Kranthi kumar
Development of methodology for accelerated validation of axle components in relation to static load capacity2024-26-03731/16/2024
The Indian automotive industry is striving towards more safe and durable vehicles. A need was felt to study the effect of changes in axle static loads on fatigue life of the axle components. Also, there was a need to develop generic test method, as there are no test standards or generic methods available in public domain for fatigue testing of commercial vehicle axles. The study was carried out to check direct effect of change in axle loads on various connections on axle, effect of suspension configuration and force distribution, Vehicle dynamics, etc. In this paper, an India specific generic load spectra was evaluated for accelerated laboratory validation. Paper discusses the methodology as; study of heavy commercial vehicle systems, road load data collection on identified test vehicles w.r.t. test matrix finalised, India specific test loads & load spectra development, Normalisation of axle load spectra w.r.t to static axle weights and arriving at test guidelines. Comprehensive
Kuwar, Virendra S, Thorat, Omkar, Bakal, Nikhil Rajendra, Joshi, Omkar Prakash, Pawar, Prashant R, Shinde, Vikram V, Sutar, Mohan, Potdar, Anil, TAK, SACHIN, Nilangekar, Abhijit, Kulkarni, Milind
Experimental Analysis of Multi-Link Rigid Axle Suspension Camber Variation with Vehicle Load2024-26-00541/16/2024
Increased popularity on SUV category in the market has led to high focus on performance attributes of SUVs. Considering higher weight & CoG for achieving handling performance target is always a challenge. Static Wheel Alignment parameters, especially Camber have shown significant contribution in Handling attributes of vehicle. This paper presents an experimental study on change in wheel camber under the influence of different vehicle loading conditions. In SUVs, generally wheel is subjected to large deflection from its high static loads which makes it quite difficult to maintain an ideal camber angle. Hence, it is important to analyze the camber angle variations under actual loading conditions. An in-house fixture is developed to emulate the actual vehicle loading conditions at rear wheel end. The multi-link rigid axle suspension with watt's link assembly is mounted on the chassis-frame which is rigidly fixed to ground and loads are achieved through hydraulic actuators at Wheels. Axle
Jani, Harshil, Rasal, Shraddhesh, Hussain, Inzamam, Asthana, Shivam, ahire, Manoj, Vellandi, Vikraman, Senniappan, Moorthy
Hybrid 3D Sound Intensity and Simulation for Optimizing Acoustic Output of Truck Rear Axles2025-01-01055/5/2023
This study presents a novel methodology for optimizing the acoustic performance of rotating machinery by combining scattered 3D sound intensity data with numerical simulations, focusing on the rear axle of a truck. Using Scan&Paint 3D, sound intensity data is rapidly acquired over a large spatial area with the assistance of a 3D sound intensity probe and infrared stereo camera. The experimental data is then integrated into far-field radiation simulations, enabling detailed analysis of the acoustic behavior and accurate predictions of far-field sound radiation. This hybrid approach offers a significant advantage for assessing complex acoustic sources, allowing for quick and reliable evaluation of noise mitigation solutions. While the current application focuses on the truck's rear axle far-field radiation, the same method can be extended to predict in-cabin sound pressure, providing a versatile solution for many industrial problems.
Fernandez Comesana, Daniel, Vael, Georges, Robin, Xavier, Orselli, Joseph, Schmal, Jared
Directivity driven simulation methodology for efficient Acoustic Encapsulation2025-01-00485/5/2023
Noise Reduction at the source level is critical to achieve the overall vehicle level interior targets. This method presents a novel approach that integrates directivity analysis with simulation techniques to optimize acoustic encapsulation design for automotive sound sources to achieve the targeted radiation levels. The foundation for this methodology is to measure the angular distribution of sound pressure levels around the noise source so called Directivity, at every frequency of interest and determine the most effective Acoustic encapsulation to achieve the targeted sound radiation. Accurate measurement of directivity in physical testing with fine angular resolutions can be complex and expensive, this study utilizes numerical simulation techniques using FEA to mitigate the challenges in mid frequency range. The scope of the study is focused on mid frequency sound pressure levels between 500-2000 Hz, which are determined to be significant contributors to overall DU noise. The first
KALUVAKOTA, SRIKANTH, Ghaisas, Nikhil, Pilz, Fernando
Application of blocked force methodology to an electrified beam axle from a medium-duty truck in vehicle and in a dynamometer test cell2025-01-00545/5/2023
The recent shift in propulsion choice away from internal combustion engines has increased the relevance of sound and vibration from electric motors and gearboxes. Electrified beam axles require different metrics from conventional beam axles for noise and vibration because they have multiple sources of vibration energy, including an electric motor and sometimes multiple reduction gearsets. They also require different metrics from electric drive units because they have stiff suspension connections and lack significant isolation. Blocked force is a good candidate because it can completely characterize the vibration energy transmitted into a receiver and is especially useful because it is theoretically independent of the vehicle-side structure. While the blocked force methodology is not new, its application to beam axles is relatively unexplored in the literature. This paper demonstrates a case study of blocked force measurement of an electrified beam axle from a battery electric medium
Shaw, Matthew D, Grimmer, Michael J
Gear noise analysis using CTPA on a full vehicle with a rear axled differential2025-01-01035/5/2023
In this paper, an in-situ Component Transfer Path Analysis (CTPA) is conducted on a full vehicle with a Rear Axle Differential. The in-situ computation is performed with both the directly measured Frequency Response Functions (FRF) and as well as a computation using the Virtual Point Transformation (VPT). These two computations produce different blocked forces. To assess their accuracy, we exploit the principle that blocked forces should be independent of the vehicle's dynamic properties. Hence, to validate the blocked forces obtained, we modified the vehicle’s subframe by adding extra masses and conducted a "transfer validation." Here we validate if the blocked forces from the original setup can predict the vibrations in the modified configuration well, testing the accuracy of both predictions.
de Klerk PhD, Dennis, Singh, Vinod
eAxles gain TRACTION22TOFHP10_0110/1/2022
OEMs are developing and testing axles with integrated electric powertrains to electrify trucks of all sizes. Development of electrified drivelines is rapidly ramping up at OEMs and Tier 1 suppliers. With a wide variety of vehicles suddenly in need of electrified drivelines capable of matching or surpassing the capabilities of the existing ICE powertrains, suppliers are providing an array of solutions to meet customer needs. For the electrification of light- and medium-duty trucks, one of the technologies rapidly gaining interest is electric axle or eAxle. An eAxle is a traditional axle housing and differential incorporating an electric motor, an inverter and a thermal-management system. Most eAxles also are equipped with a multi-speed transmission for high- and low-torque demands. While the basic concept is similar across the industry, suppliers are taking varying approaches to put these axles on the roads depending on their target vehicle segment, required power output and desired
Wolfe, Matt
Vehicle Feature Recognition Method Based on Image Semantic Segmentation2022-01-01653/29/2022
In the process of truck overload and over-limit detection, it is necessary to detect the characteristics of the vehicle's size, type, and wheel number, etc. In addition, in some vehicle visual load recognition systems, the vehicle load can be calculated by detecting the vibration frequency of specific parts of vehicle or the change in the length of the suspension during the vehicle's forward process. Therefore, it is very important to quickly and accurately identify vehicle features through the camera. This paper proposes a vehicle feature recognition method based on image semantic segmentation and Python, which can identify the length, height, number of wheels and vibration frequency at specific parts of the vehicle based on the vehicle driving video captured by the roadside camera. The process of vehicle recognition is as follows: First, build a convolutional neural network based on the image semantic segmentation model SegNet and use the data set to train it, and use the Python
Wang, Chu, Ding, Shousheng
A Multi-axle and Multi-Type Truck Classification Model for Dynamic Load Recognition2022-01-01583/29/2022
Overloading of trucks can easily cause damage to roads, bridges and other transportation facilities, and accelerate the fatigue loss of the vehicles themselves, and accidents are prone to occur under overload conditions.In recent years, various countries have formulated a series of management methods and governance measures for truck overloading.However, the detection method for overload behavior is not efficient and accurate enough.At present, the method of dynamic load identification is not perfect. No matter whether it is the dynamic weight measurement method of reconstructing the road surface or the non-contact dynamic weight measurement method, little attention is paid to the difference of different vehicles.Especially for different vehicles, there should be different load limits, and the current devices are not smart enough.Therefore, this paper hopes to design an image processing algorithm to automatically classify different types of trucks, and then calculate the actual load of
Qi, Fei
Low Frequency Modal Management of a Tata Premium Hatchback Car2022-01-03623/29/2022
Tactile feel of vehicle touch points is one of the important criteria of the customer choice while making the buying decisions in the dealership or on a test drive. This tactile feel of a vehicle is majorly governed by the low frequency mode management achieved while designing the vehicle. Different parameters like inclusion of multiple powertrains on a vehicle program, choice of multiple way seating different at driver’s, front passenger’s and rear passengers’ seating positions, instrument panel and steering system designs having higher torque delivery, suspension modes of the front and rear axles based on their articulation and degree of independency, global modes of the vehicle body, the cabin air cavity configuration and volume, etc. play a significant role in deciding this tactile feel of the vehicle being designed. How these parameters were tuned and designed while developing a Tata premium hatchback car has been elucidated with different subsystem development examples. The
Pol, Atul Devidas
Effect of Normalizing Heat Treatment on Improvement in Durability and Reliability of Lift Axle Tube of Commercial Vehicle2022-01-02463/29/2022
Lift axles of commercial vehicles are deployed to handle increased payload. These axles of Commercial vehicles are made of low alloy carbon steel materials. Lift axles are designed in hollow condition for weight reduction opportunity. Two types of tube materials are used for the manufacturing of lift axles. These are either Cold Drawn Seamless (CDS) tubes or Hot Finished Seamless (HFS) tube material. The vanadium micro-alloyed steel grade, 20MnV6 is an excellent choice for the manufacturing of lift axles. The 20MnV6 has favorable mechanical properties for lift axles and also offers good weldability. However, lift axles made of 20MnV6 when manufactured in hot-finished condition, shows significant scatter in terms of durability performance. This requires further heat treatment to be deployed for reducing the scatter in the durability performance and thus increasing the reliability of the lift axles. This study was undertaken to develop the heat treatment process for the 20MnV6 lift Axle
Das, Tarpan, Chauhan, Shiv, Varatharajan, Senthilkumaran, More, Hemant
Validating the design of CV axle for BAJA SAE ATV2022-01-07783/29/2022
Abstract— Axle transmits power from the gearbox to the wheels. There are primarily two reasons for reducing the Axles diameter in the case of a bipod CV joint namely, to avoid overdesigning and less articulation angle. As the ATV goes in a bump/ droop, a driveshaft with a larger diameter would hit the walls of the CV joint which creates hindrance in its articulation. And, if the driveshaft is overdesigned, it will add unnecessary weight and effort to the power train which would decrease the overall performance of the vehicle. We have reduced the diameter of the axle using real-time testing data by taking the help of various machines to validate that component not failing under the given load conditions; research work is divided into 3 phases of Data collection, Axle design, and validation. Total 3 test rigs were set up for Data collection and validation, combined with axial design, material selection, heat treatment, and CAE validation. Whereas efficiency of Powertrain (CVT) is also
Bhardwaj, Vasu, Dayal, Neelesh, Saini, Rakesh
Model Based Evaluation of Parallel Hybrid Concepts for a Scooter for Reduced Fuel Consumption and Emissions2022-01-08083/29/2022
IC engines are most efficient when they operate steadily in specific zones which cannot be attained in real driving conditions. Hybrids tackle this issue and improve drivetrain efficiency. Though they are used in cars and commercial vehicles they do not find application in small two wheelers especially scooters which constitute the majority of the market in several Asian Countries. The reasons are cost of implementation and need to have a suitable design. Integrating an electric motor with a conventional scooter drivetrain while retaining the base engine and the CVT is a cost effective proposition which is the motivation behind this work. Such a development will need accounting for the behavior of the belt driven CVT. In this paper a comparison between two parallel hybrid layouts has been made with the base 110cc scooter powertrain. A map based engine model and a physics based CVT model were developed and validated to simulate the base drive-train on the WMTC drive-cycle. A rule based
Mathivanan, Arulkumaran, Elango, Pradeev, Kakani, Raghav, Das, Himadri B, Ramesh, A
Steering Control Systems - Heavy TrucksJ2425_202111 (Current)11/9/2021
This SAE Recommended Practice describes a laboratory test procedure and requirements for evaluating the characteristics of heavy-truck steering control systems under simulated driver impact conditions, as well as driver entry/egress conditions. The test procedure employs a torso-shaped body block that is impacted against the steering wheel.
Truck Crashworthiness Committee
Application Guide for Aerospace Hydraulic MotorsARP4940A (Current)11/9/2021
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) is an application guide for fixed and variable displacement hydraulic motors. It provides details of the characteristics of fixed and variable displacement hydraulic motors, architectures, circuit designs, controls, and typical applications. The applications include airborne and defense vehicles with emphasis on high performance applications.
A-6C4 Power Sources Committee
Systems of Automatic Brake Torque Reduction on the Wheels of One Axle of the Car2021-01-126610/11/2021
Braking mechanisms have the most variation in performance of all of the elements of the braking system. Instability of braking torques on the wheels of one axle of the vehicle leads to the appearance of the braking forces unevenness, and then- to the vehicle skidding during braking. At one time, the appearance of open-type disc brakes made it possible to reduce the unevenness of the braking forces on the sides of the car due to their higher characteristics of energy intensity and stability. However, the lack of feedback between the left and right disc brakes mounted on the same axle of the vehicle does not allow reducing the unevenness of the braking forces to an acceptable minimum. The authors of the work studied and proposed several systems for automatic reduction of the braking torques unevenness for braking mechanisms mounted on the wheels of one axle.
Podrigalo, Mikhail, Kholodov, Mykhailo, Stepanov, Victor, Soloviov, Oleh, Aleksandrov, Yevgeniy, Volontsevych, Dmytro, Morozov, Oleksandr
Investigations on the Deposition Behaviour of Brake Wear Particles on the Wheel Surface2021-01-130110/11/2021
The deposition behavior of brake wear particles on the surface of a wheel and the mechanisms on it have not been fully understood. In addition, the proportion of brake wear particles deposited on the wheel surface compared to the total emitted particles is almost unknown. This information is necessary to evaluate the number- and mass-related emission factors measured on the inertia dynamometer and to compare them with on-road and vehicle-related emission behaviour. The aim of this study is to clarify the deposition behavior of brake particles on the wheel surface. First, the real deposition behaviour is determined in on-road tests. For particle sampling, collection pads are adapted at different positions of a front and rear axle wheel. In addition to a Real Driving Emissions (RDE)-compliant test cycle, tests are performed in urban, rural and motorway sections to evaluate speed-dependent influences. Microscopic analysis is used to determine the particle number concentration and particle
Hesse, David, Hamatschek, Christopher, Feißel, Toni, Sachse, Hannes, Augsburg, Klaus, Gramstat, Sebastian
Derivation of test schedule for Lift axle assembly using Real time data and accelerated testing approach2021-26-04869/22/2021
This paper provides the information on approach and the methodology used for testing and validation of complete lift axle assembly in Laboratory. Issues & limitations faced in real time reproduction of test track signals in laboratory and the reasons thereof are discussed. Evaluation of complete Lift axle system on vehicle is time taking and inclusive of lot of expenses and effort, as there might be failures in other aggregates. To develop the test procedure rigorous road load data need to be done at vehicle level. During this vehicle need to be driven various proving tracks that represents mixed service road conditions. Vehicle level data is recorded with help of commercially available sensors and data loggers at various locations of the subsystems. The vital role the "Accelerating testing" can play in cutting down the validation time and improving the product reliability is duly emphasized. The importance of correlation between 'accelerated test' and real time test' for authenticity
Ayyagari, Chandrashekhar, Barde, Rakesh Prabhakar, Shinde, Vikram V, Kajalkar, Atul M
Front Axle Kingpin Bush - Evaluation of Wear Rate in Operating Conditions2021-26-04739/22/2021
In automobiles, front axle assembly is a main load bearing member and houses steering linkages. Front axle assembly has two main parts viz. axle beam and axle arm, interconnected by a kingpin. This kingpin allows the rotation of axle arm during steering events. To avoid metal to metal contact between axle arm and kingpin, bushes are housed on the top and bottom half of the axle arm & in axle beam. Due to radial load and steering rotation, as a weak member, bushes will wear out faster. This affects the proper functioning of steering mechanism. Hence, the bushes need to be evaluated prior to its implementation in vehicle. In general, bushes are evaluated using Pin-On-Disc test as a comparative study, but it does not simulate exact boundary conditions as in vehicle. Next option is vehicle level validation but leads to more lead time and testing cost. Hence, as an optimized solution, the same vehicle operating conditions can be replicated in component level testing. Considering the
Bakthavachalam, Sathish Kumar, N, Gopi Kannan, Narasimman, Obuli Karthikeyan, R, Suresh
Frictional Power Loss Distribution of Automotive Axles- Experimental Evaluation and Analysis2021-26-04839/22/2021
With more stringent emission and Co2 norms (e.g. CAFÉ, RDE), it has become extremely important for all OEMs to push their boundary and make vehicle & powertrain more and more efficient. Frictional power loss of automotive axles is major source of losses which reduce the vehicle fuel economy and increase Co2 emissions. To make axles with low frictional power loss consumption, it is first important to understand the distribution of the frictional power i.e. where the energy goes and how it is distributed in the subcomponents of axles. This paper presents the main area of frictional power loss distribution inside an automotive axle of passenger car. For experimental evaluation one frictional torque measurement test rig was prepared and axle power loss was measured by stripping down one by one component to understand the distribution of frictional losses. For this study two different size of axles were compared to understand the impact of bearing size and gear size on power loss
Ahuja, Vishal, Singh, Charanjit, Singh, Parampreet, Gummadi, Gopakishore
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