Browse Topic: Alternative fuels

Items (3,054)

Hydrogen Fuel Quality for Fuel Cell Vehicles

J2719_202605 (Current)

5/8/2026

This standard provides background information and a hydrogen fuel quality standard for commercial proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell vehicles. This report also provides background information on how this standard was developed by the Hydrogen Quality Task Force (HQTF) of the Interface Working Group (IWG) of the SAE Fuel Cell Standards Committee.

Fuel Cell Standards Committee

Fuel Cell Vehicle Terminology

J2574_202605 (Current)

5/8/2026

This SAE Information Report contains definitions for hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicle terminology. It is intended that this document be a resource for those writing other hydrogen fuel cell vehicle documents, specifically, Standards or Recommended Practices.

Fuel Cell Standards Committee

Hydrogen Fuel Quality for Fuel Cell Vehicles

J2719_202510 (Current)

10/15/2025

Fuel Cell Standards Committee

Test Publishing Document

ARP090824B (Current)

10/13/2025

Test Publishing Document6667

A-6 Aerospace Actuation, Control and Fluid Power Systems

On-Board Fuel Sensing for UAS and Ground Vehicle Applications

2024-01-4128

9/16/2024

Abstract The variability in fuel, particularly for fuel blends containing sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs), emphasizes the importance of understanding fuel properties for optimizing engine performance. This paper introduces spectroscopic fuel sensors capable of real-time estimation of jet fuel properties, mainly derived cetane number (DCN). While initially developed for unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), the paper explores their potential in ground vehicle applications: enhancing engine performance through sensing for feed-forward control and fuel property monitoring at fuel depots. The fuel sensing technologies are based on spectroscopic techniques coupled with machine learning (ML) approaches. The combination of these techniques demonstrates a promising solution for a wide spectrum of fuel applications.

Patel, Dev B., Sutar, Ashish, Abraham, Abhinav, Ambre, Dhananjay, Brezinsky, Kenneth, Lynch, Patrick T., Okada, Haruna, Stafford, Jacob M., Miganakallu, Niranjan, Sanders, Scott, Rothamer, David, Mayhew, Eric, Kim, Kenneth S.

QA Test for CSP-7037

053020245/15/2024

QA Test

Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee

Exploring the Benefits of Karanja-Oil-Derived Biodiesel-Water Emulsion as a Potential Fuel for Diesel Engines Operated with High-Pressure Fuel Injection Systems

03-17-01-0003

7/21/2023

Abstract Biodiesel is a suitable alternative to diesel because of its carbon neutrality, renewability, lubricity, and lower pollutant emissions. However, extensive research indicates higher oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions with biodiesel. A practical method to combat this problem is utilizing water and biodiesel as emulsions. The effect of biodiesel-water emulsion in high-pressure fuel injection systems is not fully explored in the existing literature. The present study addresses this research gap by utilizing biodiesel-water emulsions in a modified light-duty diesel engine. The governor-controlled injection system was adapted to a fully flexible electronic system capable of high-pressure injection. Unlike other literature studies, the fuel injection timings were optimized with biodiesel-water emulsions to maximize brake thermal efficiency (bte) at every load condition. In a novel attempt, the biodiesel source, i.e., raw Karanja oil (RKO), a triglyceride, was utilized as the surfactant to stabilize the biodiesel-water emulsions containing 6%, 12%, and 18% water. The emulsions reduced the ignition delay and cylinder pressures, with less-intense premixed combustion and a more significant diffusion phase combustion than biodiesel. The emulsions also present a delayed combustion phasing following the injection timing trends. Among the tested emulsions, at 5.08 bar brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), 18% biodiesel-water emulsion resulted in an 18% reduced brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc), 5% increase in bte, 30% and 7% mitigation in NOx and smoke levels, with an increase of 10% and 28% for unburned hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions.

Gowrishankar, Sudarshan, Krishnasamy, Anand, Aidhen, Indrapal Singh

Ducted Fuel Injection Provides Consistently Lower Soot Emissions in Sweep to Full-Load Conditions

03-19-01-0001

7/14/2023

Abstract Earlier studies have proven how ducted fuel injection (DFI) substantially reduces soot for low- and mid-load conditions in heavy-duty engines, without significant adverse effects on other emissions. Nevertheless, no comprehensive DFI study exists showing soot reductions at high- and full-load conditions. This study investigated DFI in a single-cylinder, 1.7-L, optical engine from low- to full-load conditions with a low-net-carbon fuel consisting of 80% renewable diesel and 20% biodiesel. Over the tested load range, DFI reduced engine-out soot by 38.1–63.1% compared to conventional diesel combustion (CDC). This soot reduction occurred without significant detrimental effects on other emission types. Thus, DFI reduced the severity of the soot–NOx tradeoff at all tested conditions. While DFI delivered considerable soot reductions in the present study, previous DFI studies at low- and mid-load conditions delivered larger soot reductions (>90%) compared to CDC operation at the same conditions. Therefore, the DFI configuration used here has been deemed nonoptimal (in terms of parameters such as the injector-spray and piston geometries), and several improvements are recommended for future studies with high-load DFI. These improvements include employing better spray-duct alignment, a deeper piston bowl with a smaller injector umbrella angle, and a fuel injector that opens and closes faster. The study also suggests future research to make DFI ready for commercialization, such as metal-engine tests to ensure desirable DFI performance over an engine’s complete speed/load map. Overall, this study supports the continued development and commercialization of DFI to meet upcoming emissions regulations for heavy-duty vehicles. Specifically, multicylinder engine experiments and CFD simulations should be utilized to optimize the performance and clarify the full potential of DFI.

Buurman, Noad J., Nyrenstedt, Gustav, Mueller, Charles J.

Assembly and Soldering Criteria for High Quality/High Reliability Soldering Wire and Cable Termination in Aerospace Vehicles

AS4461D (Current)

7/23/2021

This standard is applicable to manual soldering and machine soldering processes utilizing controlled soldering devices, for electrical connections for wiring and cabling used in aerospace vehicles. Description of a component or device herein is not to be construed as authorizing the use of the component or device.

AE-8A Elec Wiring and Fiber Optic Interconnect Sys Install

Eco-profiling of Bio-epoxies via Life cycle Assessment

SAE-PP-002312/3/2021

Epoxies, synthesized from bisphenol-A (BPA) and epichlorohydrin (ECH), are predominantly used as coatings, adhesives, and as matrix material in fiber-reinforced composites for body-in-white (BiW) applications in the automotive sector. However, given the production of conventional epoxies from non-renewable petroleum resource and toxicity of BPA, several initiatives have been undertaken by researchers to synthesize alternative epoxies from various bio-sources that are free of BPA and exhibit similar mechanical performance. As a result, such bio-sourced epoxies are almost immediately termed as “eco-friendly”, despite the lack of comprehensive evaluation of their ecological performance that takes into account enhanced natural resource usage and associated impacts accompanying such epoxies. Hence, this work aims at addressing this gap by evaluating the environmental impacts of such bio-sourced epoxies via cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment to determine the genuine credentials of their ecofriendliness. Epoxies synthesized from three different bio-sources – namely, bark extractives, lignin, and triglyceride – were chosen, to evaluate their ecological performance. ReCiPe midpoint and endpoint methods were used to evaluate these epoxies in accordance with ISO 14040 and 14044 standards. Among the three bio-epoxies, lignin-based epoxy exhibits poor eco-performance mainly due to the use of large amount of chemicals during extraction of lignin, involving delignification and valorization. On the contrary, bio-epoxy synthesized from triglycerides were found to be eco-friendly compared to other bio-epoxies. All bio-epoxies are observed to contribute significantly to toxicity-related categories, mainly due to higher electricity consumption during both epoxy synthesis and manufacturing processes. Overall, this work sheds light on various avenues for synthesizing truly sustainable epoxies that exhibit mechanical performance comparable to their conventional counterparts.

Anthony, Lindsay, Jackson, Alyssa

Jet Reference Fluid Study for Fuel Tank Sealants

AIR4275B (Current)

2/3/2021

This information report covers two distinct projects to formulate Jet Refrence Fluids (JRF) for testing of material compatibility. The first effort began in 1978 and focused on producing a formulation (JRF-2) that simulated JP-4 and included composition with metallic ions that reproduced chalking of fuel tank sealants. This effort resulted in the preparation of AMS2629 that defined the formulation of JRF-2 (Type 1) and the same formulation with metallic ions (Type 2). The second effort began in 2002 and focused on preparing a JRF that simulated Jet A, JP-5 and JP-8. This effort went through multiple iterations, but eventually resulted in a JRF-3 formulation composed of Jet A plus military additives spiked to 25% aromatic content and high levels of sulfur experienced in the global fuel supply. Since the metallic ions added to JRF-2 demonstrated their ability to simulate a chalking reaction, chalking was not tested with the ions added to JRF-3. AMS2629 was changed multiple times to reflect the onging changes of this project and included both Type 1 and Type 2 formulations.

AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee

Oxygen System and Component Cleaning

ARP1176B (Current)

10/19/2020

This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) provides recommended practices for the cleaning of aircraft oxygen equipment, both metallic and non-metallic articles, such as oxygen lines (tubes, hoses, etc.), components (including regulator and valve parts), cylinders, and ground-based equipment that may be used to support aircraft oxygen systems. This document also specifies work area details, methods for selecting suitable cleaning agents, cleaning methods, and test methods for verifying levels of cleanliness. The cleanliness coding scheme specified in this document provides a method for documenting minimum cleanliness level requirements and for identifying compliance.

A-10 Aircraft Oxygen Equipment Committee

Dragonfly : Defining Environments for Rotorcraft Flight on Titan

F-0076-2020-16301

10/5/2020

Dragonfly is an X-8 octocopter designed to explore Saturn's moon Titan, and is currently under development for launch in 2026. Titan is a uniquely favorable body for atmospheric flight, in that it has a low gravity (1/7 Earth's) and a dense atmosphere (4x Earth's) which reduce the energetic requirements for heavier-than-air flight. Dragonfly will make multiple (autonomous) flights over several years with ranges of the order of 10km to explore different sites on Titan. The key features of the Titan environment are reviewed. These include the characteristics of the landing site terrain, resembling dune fields in terrestrial deserts. Winds are generally very low, ∼ 1m/s. Stronger winds, and methane rainfall, can occur in rare rainstorms, but these are not expected at the latitude and season of Dragonfly's arrival. Brownout and triboelectric charging due to surface dust lofted by rotor downwash is possible, and these hazards and their mitigations are discussed.

Lorenz, Ralph

Fuels in Ground Support Equipment (Other Than Gasoline or Diesel)

AIR5373A (Current)

9/23/2020

This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended as a source of comparative information and is subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This document describes currently used fuels and fuels which may be used in the future. Conventional gasoline and diesel fuels are intentionally omitted from this document.

AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee

Fueling Protocols for Light Duty Gaseous Hydrogen Surface Vehicles

J2601_202005 (Current)

5/29/2020

SAE J2601 establishes the protocol and process limits for hydrogen fueling of vehicles with total volume capacities greater than or equal to 49.7 L. These process limits (including the fuel delivery temperature, the maximum fuel flow rate, the rate of pressure increase, and the ending pressure) are affected by factors such as ambient temperature, fuel delivery temperature, and initial pressure in the vehicle’s compressed hydrogen storage system. SAE J2601 establishes standard fueling protocols based on either a look-up table approach utilizing a fixed pressure ramp rate, or a formula-based approach utilizing a dynamic pressure ramp rate continuously calculated throughout the fill. Both protocols allow for fueling with communications or without communications. The table-based protocol provides a fixed end-of-fill pressure target, whereas the formula-based protocol calculates the end-of-fill pressure target continuously. For fueling with communications, this standard is to be used in conjunction with SAE J2799. An important factor in the performance of hydrogen fueling is the station’s dispensing equipment cooling capability and the resultant fuel delivery temperature. There are three fuel delivery temperature categories denoted by a “T” rating: T40, T30, and T20, where T40 is the coldest. Under reference conditions, SAE J2601 has a performance target of a fueling time of 3 minutes and a state of charge (SOC) of 95 to 100% (with communications), which can be achieved with a T40-rated dispenser. However, with higher fuel delivery temperature dispenser ratings (T30 or T20) and/or at high ambient temperatures, fueling times may be longer. Table 1 depicts the scope of SAE J2601 and potential work items for future revisions within this or other documents of the SAE J2601 series. SAE J2601 includes protocols which are applicable for two pressure classes (35 MPa and 70 MPa), three fuel delivery temperatures categories (-40 °C, -30 °C, -20 °C) and compressed hydrogen storage system sizes (total volume classification) from 49.7 to 248.6 L (35 MPa ➔ H35, and 70 MPa ➔ H70), and from 248.6 L and above (H70 only). Future versions of SAE J2601 work may incorporate warmer fuel delivery temperatures (-10 °C and ambient) and smaller total volume capacities for motorcycles and other applications. The fueling protocols herein were developed based on a set of key assumptions described in Section 7 and Appendix A. These assumptions should be carefully considered in the development and implementation of an on-board compressed hydrogen storage system. In particular, hydrogen storage systems with properties which do not fall within the parameters in Table A3 should be further evaluated to confirm compatibility with the protocols herein.

Fuel Cell Standards Committee

Fuel Dispensing Filter Test Methods

J2793_202005 (Current)

5/26/2020

This SAE Recommended Practice is applicable to gasoline and diesel fuel filters installed on fuel dispensing equipment, mobile or stationary. It describes a set of tests used to characterize the structural integrity, filtration performance, and reaction to water contaminant with fuel dispensing filters.

Filter Test Methods Standards Committee

Aging of a Multi-Hole Diesel Injector and Its Effect on the Rate of Injection

2020-01-08294/14/2020

In order to comply with the increasingly restrictive limits of emissions and fuel consumption, researches are focusing on improving the efficiency of combustion engines. In this area, the aging of the injector and its effect on the injection development is not entirely analyzed. In this work, the rate of injection of a diesel injector at different stages of its lifetime is analyzed. To this end, a multi-hole piezoelectric injector was employed, comparing the injection rate measured at the beginning of its lifetime to the rate provided by the injector after aging, maintaining the same boundary conditions in both measurements. Injection pressures up to 200 MPa were used throughout the experiments. The results showed that the steady-state rate of injection was lower after the injector aged. Furthermore, the injector took a longer time to close the needle and end the injection, in comparison with the measurements done at earlier stages of its lifetime. To explain this phenomenon, measurements of momentum flux for each injector hole were done, and results showed that two holes were partially obstructed. Thus, the presence of coking in the nozzle of the injector was considered as the cause of the differences between stages seen in the rate of injection. In this sense, a reduction of the effective outlet holes area due to deposits would restrict the flow rate. Moreover, the pressure in the nozzle due to the contained fuel is extended, leading to a longer time required by the needle to descend and end the injection. Then, aging of the injector was attributed to deposits in the nozzle holes. This phenomenon could result in an inhomogeneous spray distribution, which should be taken into account when designing the combustion process.

Payri, Raul, Salvador, Francisco Javier, Gimeno, Jaime, Montiel, Tomas

Development of a Method to Measure Soft Particles from Diesel Type Fuels

2020-01-0344

4/14/2020

Renewable fuels have an important role to create sustainable energy systems. In this paper the focus is on biodiesel, which is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats. Today biodiesel is mostly used as a drop-in fuel, mixed into conventional diesel fuels to reduce their environmental impact. Low quality drop-in fuel can lead to deposits throughout the fuel systems of heavy duty vehicles. In a previous study fuel filters from the field were collected and analyzed with the objective to determine the main components responsible for fuel filter plugging. The identified compounds were constituents of soft particles. In the current study, the focus was on metal carboxylates since these have been found to be one of the components of the soft particles and associated with other engine malfunctions as well. Hence the measurement of metal carboxylates in the fuel is important for future studies regarding the fuel’s effect on engines. The first aim of this study was to create synthetic soft particles from biodiesel. Accelerated aging of fuels with different contaminations such as engine oil and calcium oxide were used to create the synthetic soft particles. The precipitates were collected and analyzed with different techniques such as FTIR and GC-MS, to identify the main components which were then compared with the results of the previous study. Following this, specific attention was given to calcium methyl azelate as it was shown to be found in field fuel filters. A method using GC-MS was developed to be able to estimate the amount of soft particles by measuring calcium methyl azelate. The specified method proved to be adequate for future studies to evaluate the filtration efficiency of different filter materials against soft particles.

Csontos, Botond, Swarga, Shriharsha, Bernemyr, Hanna, Pach, Mayte, Hittig, Henrik

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Models to Predict Cetane Number of Different Biodiesels and Their Blends

2020-01-06174/14/2020

The ignition quality of a fuel is described by its cetane number. Experimental methods used to determine cetane number employ Co-operative fuel research (CFR) engine and Ignition quality tester (IQT) which are expensive, have less repeatability and require skilled operation, and hence least preferred. There are many prediction models reported, which involve number of double bonds and number of carbon atoms whose determination is not direct. Using models that relate biodiesel composition to its cetane number is limited by the range of esters involved. Hence, a model to predict cetane number of biodiesels that addresses the limitations of the existing models, without ignoring the influence of factors such as degree of unsaturation and number of carbon atoms, is needed. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) could be one such method. Five biodiesels with significant compositional variations were prepared from Camelina, Coconut, Karanja, Linseed and Palm oils, and blended in different volume proportions to arrive at 70 samples. The range of cetane number covered was from 42.2 to 65.4. Peak absorbance of different functional groups of these samples and peak ratios were determined using FTIR which were correlated to their cetane number to develop prediction models using regression. These models were validated using biodiesels data that are not used in developing them. Mean absolute deviation and Mean absolute percentage error were the statistical parameters used to compare the proposed model with existing models whose values turned out to be considerably good.

Bukkarapu, Kiran Raj, Krishnasamy, Anand

Bearing Fault Diagnosis of the Gearbox Using Blind Source Separation

2020-01-04364/14/2020

Gearbox fault diagnosis is one of the core research areas in the field of rotating machinery condition monitoring. The signal processing-based bearing fault diagnosis in the gearbox is considered as challenging as the vibration signals collected from acceleration transducers are, in general, a mixture of signals originating from an unknown number of sources, i.e. an underdetermined blind source separation (UBSS) problem. In this study, an effective UBSS-based algorithm solution, that combines empirical mode decomposition (EMD) and kernel independent component analysis (KICA) method, is proposed to address the technical challenge. Firstly, the nonlinear mixture signals are decomposed into a set of intrinsic mode function components (IMFs) by the EMD method, which can be combined with the original observed signals to reconstruct new observed signals. Thus, the original problem can be effectively transformed into over-determined BSS problem. Then, the whitening process is carried out to convert the over-determined BSS into determined BSS, which can be solved by the KICA method. Finally, the ant lion optimization (ALO) is adopted to further enhance the performance of the EMD-KICA method. The proposed solution is assessed through simulation experiments for non-linearly mixed bearing vibration signals, and the numerical result demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed algorithmic solution.

Zhong, Hong, Liu, Jingxing, Wang, Liangmo, Ding, Yang, Qian, Yahui

Performance of a Printed Bimetallic (Stainless Steel and Bronze) Engine Head Operating under Stoichiometric and Lean Spark Ignited (SI) Combustion of Natural Gas

2020-01-07704/14/2020

Additive manufacturing was used to fabricate a head for an automotive-scale single-cylinder engine operating on natural gas. The head was consisted of a bimetallic composition of stainless steel and bronze. The engine performance using the bimetallic head was compared against the stock cast iron head. The heads were tested at two speeds (1200 and 1800 rpm), two brake mean effective pressures (6 and 10 bar), and two equivalence ratios (0.7 and 1.0). The bimetallic head showed good durability over the test and produced equivalent efficiencies, exhaust temperatures, and heat rejection to the coolant to the stock head. Higher combustion temperatures and advanced combustion phasing resulted from use with the bimetallic head. The implication is that with optimization of the valve timing, an efficiency benefit may be realized with the bimetallic head.

Kass, Michael, Biruduganti, Munidhar, Kaul, Brian, Storey, John, Longman, Douglas, Elliott, Amelia, Siddel, Derek

Measurement of Fuel Distribution in a Small PFI Spark-Ignition Engine Using Tracer PLIF

2020-01-0786

4/14/2020

The distribution of fuel-air mixture inside the engine cylinder strongly influences the combustion process. Planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) is commonly used for fuel distribution measurement, however, it is mostly reported on moderate- to large-sized engines. In the present work, PLIF is applied to measure the fuel distribution inside the cylinder of a small, four-stroke, port-fuel-injection (PFI), spark-ignition engine with displacement volume of 110 cm3. Iso-octane was used as the base fuel, and 3-pentanone (15% by volume) was added as a fluorescent tracer in the base fuel. The effect of equivalence ratio, considering ϕ = 1.2, 1.0, and 0.8, on in-cylinder fuel distribution was studied with low throttle opening of 25% at 1200 rpm. PLIF images were recorded at different crank angle degrees during both intake and compression strokes over a swirl measurement plane located at the TDC position. It was found that the fuel stratification was present from intake to even late compression. Also, no significant change in fuel distribution patterns was noted at different crank angle degrees for a given operating condition. Instantaneous PLIF images of the fuel distribution at 330 CAD during compression also showed a considerable variation from one cycle to the next. As expected, the fluorescence signal intensity was increased with the increase in equivalence ratio. Results also showed that the fuel distribution was much more noticeable near the diametrically opposite location to the spark plug on the tested engine, and continued to exist till late compression (i.e. 330 CAD).

Garg, Shubham, Mittal, Mayank, Sahu, Srikrishna, Lakshminarasimhan, V

Performance and Noise of Dual Fuel Engine Running on Cottonseed, Soybean Raw Oils and Their Methyl Esters as Pilot Fuels

2020-01-0811

4/14/2020

The cottonseed oil, soybean oil and their methyl esters have been used as a pilot fuels for dual fuel engine running on the LPG as the main fuel. A variable compression research diesel engine has been converted to run on dual fuel of LPG and a pilot fuel derived from the renewable liquid fuels above. The engine has been instrumented to measure the combustion pressure, crank angles, exhaust temperature, flow rates of air, pilot fuel and gaseous fuel. The effects of changing the following parameters have been studied: the mass of pilot fuel, the mass of gaseous fuel, the pilot fuel injection timing, engine speed and the pilot fuel type. Five different pilot fuels has been tested here namely the cottonseed raw oil, the cottonseed methyl ester, the soybean raw oil, the soybean methyl ester and the diesel fuel as a reference fuel. The results presented included the combustion noise (as maximum pressure rise rate), the heat release rate, the maximum combustion pressure, the exhaust temperature, the brake and indicated mean effective pressures. It has been found that the renewable pilot fuel properties affected the combustion process and the combustion noise. The best fuel in terms of highest output and minimum noise has been put forward.

Selim, Mohamed Y. E., Saleh, Hosam E.

Development of Dual Fuel Engine Fueled with Used Cooking Oil Biodiesel and Ethanol-an Experimental Study on Performance and Combustion Characteristics

2020-01-0803

4/14/2020

This paper investigates the performance and combustion characteristics of a compression ignition engine (CI engine) fueled with Used Cooking Oil Biodiesel (UCOB) and ethanol in dual fuel mode. In this study, UCOB was injected as the main fuel through a conventional mechanical fuel injection system. Various mass flow rates of ethanol were inducted as primary fuel through the engine intake manifold using a separate fuel injection system. Mass flow rates of ethanol were metered by an electronic control circuit. The engine test was conducted under different load conditions from no load to full load in a fully instrumented direct injection, water-cooled compression ignition engine. The results indicated that the dual fuel engine produced higher brake thermal efficiency, cylinder pressure, heat release rate with lower specific fuel consumption at a higher load condition. However, it was found that combustion characteristics improved marginally at the lower load conditions.

Velmurugan, Ramanathan, Mayakrishnan, Jaikumar, Palanimuthu, Vijayabalan, Nandagopal, Sasikumar, Elumalai, Sangeethkumar, Anaimuthu, Shridhar, Busireddy, Vamshidhar

Strategies to Gain the Loss in Power in a Military Diesel Engine Using JP-8 Instead of ULSD

2020-01-08044/14/2020

The Department of Defense (DOD) has adopted the use of JP-8 under the “single battlefield fuel” policy. Fuel properties of JP-8 which are different from ULSD include cetane number, density, heating value and compressibility (Bulk modulus). While JP8 has advantages compared to ULSD, related to storage, combustion and lower soot emissions, its use cause a drop in the peak power in some military diesel engines. The engines that has loss in power use the Hydraulically actuated Electronic Unit Injection (HEUI) fuel system. The paper explains in details the operation of HEUI including fuel delivery into the injector and its compression to the high injection pressure before its delivery in the combustion chamber. The effect of fuel compressibility on the volume of the fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber is explained in details. A fuel such as JP-8 which has a lower Bulk modulus is compressed to a smaller volume than ULSD which has a higher Bulk modulus before its delivery in the combustion chamber, and this is the main reason for the drop in power explained earlier. Experiments conducted on a CAT C7 engine demonstrated the loss in peak power associated with JP-8 over the whole speed range. Different approaches in the injection process have been discussed to gain the loss in peak power.

Raut, Prasad D., Atre, Omkar A., Trivedi, Manan, Henein, Naeim

Onboard Ethanol-Gasoline Separation System for Octane-on-Demand Vehicle

2020-01-03504/14/2020

Bioethanol is being used as an alternative fuel throughout the world based on considerations of reduction of CO2 emissions and sustainability. It is widely known that ethanol has an advantage of high anti-knock quality. In order to use the ethanol in ethanol-blended gasoline to control knocking, the research discussed in this paper sought to develop a fuel separation system that would separate ethanol-blended gasoline into a high-octane-number fuel (high-ethanol-concentration fuel) and a low-octane-number fuel (low-ethanol-concentration fuel) in the vehicle. The research developed a small fuel separation system, and employed a layout in which the system was fitted in the fuel tank based on considerations of reducing the effect on cabin space and maintaining safety in the event of a collision. The total volume of the components fitted in the fuel tank is 6.6 liters. It was demonstrated that the onboard fuel separation system possessed sufficient control performance in practical use in actual driving environments. In addition, measurements of fuel separation speed in LA4 driving cycle showed that the system was able to separate the fuel at a speed higher than the speed of consumption of high-octane-number fuel necessary for the engine. The ethanol concentration of the separated fuel was approximately 90%. This figure represents a sufficient octane number to control knocking in high-compression-ratio engines under high-load conditions. The power consumption of the fuel separation system was approximately 350W. Taking the increase in engine fuel efficiency into consideration, it is possible to expect an increase of approximately 15% in fuel efficiency for the vehicle as a whole.

Chishima, Hiroshi, Tsutsumi, Daiko, Kitamura, Toru

Green Jet Fuel Additive Made from Acetone Plus Light

TBMG-361733/1/2020

A domestically generated additive was made by taking biomass-derived acetone — common nail polish remover — and using light to upgrade it to higher-mass hydrocarbons. It can be blended with conventional jet fuel to fly while providing environmental benefits.

Layered Composite Insulation

TBMG-361633/1/2020

NASA's Layered Composite Insulation (LCI) technology is an easy-to-use system that can benefit multiple industries that depend on regulation of low temperatures in equipment and products. The technology combines a unique layered cryogenic insulation system with specific manufacturing, packaging, wrapping, and rolling methods.

Breathalyzer Detects Marijuana

TBMG-359712/1/2020

As recreational marijuana legalization becomes more widespread in the U.S., so has concern about what that means for enforcing driving-under-the-influence (DUI) laws. Unlike a breathalyzer used to detect alcohol, police do not have a device that can be used in the field to determine if a driver is under the influence of marijuana.

Experimental Comparison of Biogas and Natural Gas as Vibration, Emission, and Performance in a Diesel Engine Converted to a Dual Fuel

04-13-01-00041/27/2020

Biogas, natural gas, and their usage in the diesel engine will be important in the future. For this purpose, the effects of biogas on engine performance, emissions, and engine vibrations of the diesel engines with dual fuel system are investigated in comparison with natural gas. It has also been included in evaluating the deformation of the engine oil due to hydrogen sulfide combustion reactions. In this study, a constant speed, naturally aspirated, and direct injection of the diesel engine with volume of 2.5 liter has been converted into a dual fuel system that can be included in gas fuels. In order to determine engine performance, exhaust emissions, engine vibration, and noise, the tests were carried out at load stages of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 kW and at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The experiments were first performed in a mono operation condition of the conventional diesel fuel. Subsequently, tests were repeated under natural gas/diesel and biogas/diesel dual fuel operation conditions, respectively. As a result of the tests, it was observed that the vibration amount decreased and the noise emission was reduced by 3.5% in all stages where biogas was used as the main fuel. Depending on fuel or operation system change, no significant change was observed in cylinder block, cylinder heat, exhaust, and intake manifold temperature. The exhaust gas temperature is measured to be lower because of the carbon dioxide (CO2) content in the biogas. When approaching from the point view of engine emissions, it was determined that the carbon monoxide (CO) emission increased at all engine loads while a decrease of 50% in oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission occurred.

Aytav, Emre, Koçar, Günnur, Teksan, Abdulhalik Emre

The Combustion Characteristic of Fuel Additives with Diesel–Ethanol Fuel blends on Engine Performance

2019-32-0611

1/24/2020

Reducing carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) is one of the most important drivers to promote biofuels. Fuel from biomass has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and can gradually reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. However, fuel properties can differ significantly from standard diesel fuel and this will affect exhaust emissions and environmental pollution. Diesel – ethanol fuel blends development and specification are currently driven by the engine technology, existing fossil fuel specification and availability of feedstock. Thus, the aims of this study to investigate the effects of fuel additives with diesel–ethanol fuel blend under steady-state conditions. In the present study, the additives were palm diesel, n-butanol, ethyl acetate and di-tert-butyl peroxide (DTBP). The ratio of conventional diesel fuel to ethanol fuel to fuel additive are 80:15:5 by volume of fuel blends. The comparative studies on the effects of fuel additives in the engine performance and phase separation in diesel–ethanol blends. The effects of engine performance included exhaust gas emissions with different fuel additives on small diesel engine are also investigated under different engine conditions in order to considering the engine speed and engine load comparison with conventional diesel. The study found that all the additives are enhanced the stabilities in diesel–ethanol fuel blends and phase separation has not be found under the room temperature. The diesel–ethanol fuel blend with DTBP can improved the highest thermal efficiency with lower exhaust gas emission (e.g. carbon-monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and soot) compare with conventional diesel with another fuel additives. However, the break specific fuel consumption is higher (>4%) than conventional diesel which could be acceptable range. The results suggest that significant benefits can derive from the use of di-tert-butyl peroxide as fuel additive for diesel and ethanol fuel blends as the alternative fuel for compression ignition engine in terms of engine performance, exhaust gas emissions, after treatment system performance and environmental pollution in the near future.

Theinnoi, Kampanart, Sawatmongkhon, Boonlue, Wongchang, Thawatchai, Sukjit, Ekarong, Chuepeng, Sathaporn

Utilization of Castor Oil-Based Ethyl Ester Biodiesel in a Diesel Engine

2019-32-06061/24/2020

Biodiesel was prepared through transesterification of castor oil and ethanol. The optimization of parameters related to the yield of transesterification, such as oil to ethanol molar ratio, concentration of catalyst, reaction temperature and reaction time, was investigated. The results indicated that the optimum condition for castor oil ethyl ester (COEE) production was 1:12 oil to ethanol molar ratio, 1.5% catalyst concentration, 40 °C reaction temperature and 150 minutes reaction time. To avoid extremely high viscosity of castor oil which can affect the fuel injection system, COEE was blended with commercial diesel fuel at different concentrations ranged from 5%-15% volume and key properties of fuel blends, mainly focused on fuel lubricity and viscosity were evaluated. The presence of 8% COEE in diesel fuel was concluded as the optimum concentration because the smallest wear scar diameter was obtained after the lubricity test and its viscosity was within acceptable limits prescribed by the standard specification of diesel fuel. Consequently, the blend of 8% COEE and diesel fuel was selected in the engine test. The results showed that the addition of 8% COEE to diesel fuel can improve brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption. Moreover, the reduction in carbonaceous gas emissions and oxides of nitrogen was obtained by the combustion of the COEE blend.

Pumpuang, Anupap, Maithomklang, Somkiat, Sukjit, Ekarong, Dejvajara, Disatorn, Samaiklang, Phannathon, Sanluecha, Somluethai, Tongroon, Manida

THE EFFECT OF BIODIESEL ON THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF AUTOMOTIVE ELASTOMERIC COMPOUNDS

2019-36-03271/13/2020

The lack of electrical conductivity on materials, which are used in automotive fuel systems, can lead to electrostatic charges buildup in the components of such systems. This accumulation of energy can reach levels that exceed their capacity to withstand voltage surges, which considerably increases the risk of electrical discharges or sparks. Another important factor to consider is the conductivity of the commercially available fuels, such as biodiesel, which contributes to dissipate these charges to a proper grounding point in automobiles. From 2013, the diesel regulation in Brazil have changed and the levels of sulfur in the composition of diesel were reduced considerably, changing its natural characteristic of promoting electrostatic discharges, becoming more insulating. Taking into account the critical factors mentioned above, the SAE J1645 standard specifies the levels of conductivity and maximum electrostatic energy accumulation (ESD) that automotive materials must meet to avoid unintentional discharges on these systems and guarantee the integrity of the involved components and the safety of occupants. Thus, this work aims to analyze the effect of (bio)diesel on the electrical properties of a new elastomeric composition (PVC/NBR+) for fuel filler hoses. The findings present evidence that this new formulation has high performance in the dissipation of electrostatic charges and can meet the conductivity levels requested by SAE J1645, even in aging test with aggressive biodiosel.

Ângelo Aguiar, Rodrigo Polkowski, Almeida, Oberti, Gonçalves, Cristiane, Herbert, Cristiano, Santos, Helano, Souza, Jodalva

B-GAS: Conversion system to Internal Combustion Engine (Diesel) for using alternative energetic source for application in Agricultural Machinery

2019-36-02351/13/2020

Fuel has a huge port in the operating costs of agribusiness, the increase on the price and the shortage of this energy resource has a direct impact on agricultural production costs. In this context, regions that are farther from refineries and lack the presence of fuel distribution centers tend to suffer more from the availability and cost of this resource. Economically speaking, agribusiness has a prominent position in the national scenery. The world fuel source had an evolution from the predominance of solid fuels to the current age of liquid fuels derived from petroleum and seeing the future and growing age of gas fuels as the predecessor stage of electric vehicles in some markets. Thereby, agricultural organic waste has the potential to generate an alternative energy, clean and ecological matrix, also reducing the emission of polluting gases, soil, groundwater, rivers and weir are still prevented, and the release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as methane and carbon dioxide. In Brazil, animal waste is normally used for the generation of biofuel, and only 14% of it used in automobiles. Thus, biogas has been studied as a promising energy matrix because it is less polluting and renewable to mitigate the damaging effects of fossil fuels. However, it is highest limitation is the low development of adaptation for Diesel engines, whereupon the project in question is aimed, of which purpose is to develop solutions for existing Diesel engines while maintaining the performance and durability, reducing the dependence of fossil fuels and allowing the use of alternative and cheaper energy sources, produced by the agriculturalists who have space and infrastructure to produce their own fuel, making it self-sustaining. Thus, the development of the project will be guided by the injection of the biogas in the intake manifold in a stoichiometric ratio of air / fuel according to operational necessity, while the biodiesel injected directly into the combustion chamber will be of utmost importance for the start of combustion as pilot flame, since the biogas is unable to combust only with the compression of the cylinder.

da Silva, Giovana Queiroz, Gomes, Cléber Willian, dos Santos, Guilherme Bugatti, Nunes da Costa, Paulo Eduardo Wey, Talib Soares, Pedro Augusto, Raduan, Renato Zerbinatti, Gomes, Vinícius Trento

In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU): Methylotrophic Microorganisms Expressing Soluble Methane Monooxygenase Proteins

TBMG-358121/1/2020

Long-duration missions to planetary bodies and deep space will require new technological developments that support human habitation in transit and on distant bodies. Microorganisms are unique from the standpoint that they can be employed as self-replicating bio-factories to produce both native and engineered mission-relevant bio-products. Methane (CH4) usage in In-Space Manufacturing (ISM) platforms has been discussed previously for human exploration and has been proposed to be used in physicochemical systems as a propulsion fuel, supply gas, and in fuel cells.

Precipitation Study of B30 Blended from FAME and/or HVO and Petro Diesel Fuel

2019-01-219012/19/2019

Indonesia has planned for the implementation of B30 fuel in 2020, and as a consequence, a large-scale production of biodiesel from palm oil will be significantly increased in the country. In application as public transportation fuel, biodiesel quality and blending composition play an important role for the success of the implementation of B30 program. Indonesia consists of highlands and lowlands as urban areas that have different temperature regions varying from 12 - 35°C. Cold temperature could accelerate the formation of precipitate of B30 fuels. Samples of B30 fuels were made by blending biodiesel and/or hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) with Euro 3 and Euro 4 petro diesel fuels. The precipitate composed of monoglycerol and FAME. Precipitation of the chemicals was caused by their higher melting point that crystallized and the solvency effect of petro diesel in cold temperature. It was found that the amount of precipitate formed in B30 blended from 30% FAME and 70% Euro 4 petro diesel fuel was the highest one. Therefore, the requirement for monoglycerol and moisture contents in biodiesel quality needed to be improved to avoid more precipitates formed in B30 fuel in cold temperature region.

Mansur, Dieni, Fitriady, Muhammad Arifuddin, Setiapraja, Hari, Paryanto, Imam, Haspriyanti, Nita, Dela, Nurul, Gozan, Misri

The precipitation of biodiesel impurities at low temperature and its effect on fuel filter

2019-01-218812/19/2019

Biofuels are expanding continuously in global market as one of renewable options to replace fossil fuels. Biodiesel is the most commonly used biofuel that can be blended into conventional diesels in any proportion. However, higher biodiesel blends may cause problems. One of its problems is precipitation formation arise from biodiesel may clog fuel filter at low temperature. This study focuses on fuel and environment factors on biodiesel precipitation and their influence degree on fuel filter clogging. The results indicate that monoglycerides and temperature have strong correlation with precipitate weight. Moreover, quantitative effect of precipitate weight on filter clogging was clarified.

Suwannamit, Sareewan, Ngammoh, Jaratpong, Funahashi, Minoru, Tasaki, Mamoru, Krissanasaeranee, Methira, Porntangjitlikit, Suriya, Silapakampeerapap, Supap, Wuttimongkolchai, Arunratt, Chiampradit, Nitiwat

An Effect of Utilization B30 from Various Blends of B0:FAME and HVO on Emissions, Fuel Consumption and Power of Euro4 Vehicle Technology

2019-01-218912/19/2019

Indonesia has implemented mandatory for utilization of high ratio biodiesel starting from B10 (10% of biodiesel and 90% of diesel fuel by volume) in 2013 then it gradually increased to B20 in 2016 and B30 in 2020. On the other hand, Indonesian Government will also strengthen vehicle emission regulation from Euro 2 to Euro4 in 2021. Therefore, B0 (low sulfur diesel fuel) and B100 (biodiesel) fuel properties as blended fuel for B30 must be improved to comply with Euro4 vehicle emission regulation. In this study various formulation of B30 were investigated, in which the B100 was varied from FAME (fatty Acid Methyl Ester), HVO (Hydrotreated Vegetable oil), and blend of FAME and HVO. The test was conducted under Euro4 vehicle technology to investigate their effect on emissions, fuel consumption and power. In this experiment, emission, fuel consumption and power were tested using UN-ECE R83-05 regulation, UN-ECE R101 and acceleration method respectively. The results showed that B30 has lower CO, HC and particulate emission compared with B0. However, NOx emission for some formulation slightly increased. Moreover, B30 could comply with emission limit, as stated under Euro4 regulation. Fuel consumption for B30 with some formulation was 2-3% higher than that of B0, but it was about the same between B0 and B30 with optimization ratio of FAME and HVO.

Setiapraja, Hari, Yubaidah, Siti, Ekasari, Mutia, Haspriyanti, Nita, Rustyawan, Wawan, Rochim, Abdul

Control of the Distillation Curve of Biodiesel Fuel by Cross-Metathesis Reaction Based on Fatty-Acid Composition

2019-01-218712/19/2019

Biodiesel fuel (Fatty acid methyl esters: FAME) have lower volatility than petro-diesel fuel due to the larger molecular size of FAME. Recent studies report that the distillation temperature of biodiesel fuel can be lowered by the cross-metathesis reaction with short-chain olefin using ruthenium catalyst. In this study, the effect of cross-metathesis reaction conditions on the distillation characteristics of reformulated biodiesel fuel is investigated to reveal the reaction conditions for fitting the distillation curve of biodiesel fuels to that of petro-diesel fuel. Furthermore, the reactivity of typical biodiesel fuels such as RME (rapeseed oil), SME (soybean oil), and WME (waste cooking oil) for cross-metathesis reaction were examined to reveal the reaction conditions appropriate for their fatty-acid compositions.

Kawasaki, Kiyoshi, Yamane, Koji, Umeno, Ryohei

Effect of Alternative Fuels on Marine Engine Performance

2019-01-2230

12/19/2019

Marine transportation sector is highly dependent on fossil-based energy carriers. Decarbonization of shipping can be accomplished by implementing biobunkers into an existing maritime fuel supply chain. However, there are many compatibility issues when blending new biocomponents with their fossil-based counterparts. Thus, it is of high importance to predict the effect of fuel properties on marine engine performance, especially for new fuel blends. In the given work, possible future solutions concentrated on liquid fuels are taken into account. Under consideration are such fuels as biodiesel (FAME), hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), straight vegetable oil (SVO), pyrolysis oil, biocrude, and methanol. Knowledge about the behavior of new fuel in an existing engine is notably important for decision makers and fuel producers. Hence, the main goal of the present work is to create a model, which can predict the engine performance from the end-user perspective. For the purpose of modeling, only the latest research on marine fuels is taken into account. In the current approach, results from a representative measurement set-up are compared in order to create a uniform model. As a result, all the provided data are expressed in relative changes in reference to standard marine fuel – heavy fuel oil (HFO). The modeling Is performed by means of multilinear regression and accuracy of the model is relatively high, with a coefficient of determination over 0.9. The outcomes provide a prediction of final engine performance for the specified fuel blend. Knowing the final properties of fuel (such as calorific value, density, viscosity), it is attainable to estimate fuel consumption, carbon dioxide emissions and determine possible fuel compatibility issues. Moreover, the model enables estimation of carbon dioxide (CO2) tailpipe emissions, which should be included in the whole Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) while assessing the renewability index of the fuel.

Wojcieszyk, Michal, Kroyan, Yuri, Larmi, Martti, Kaario, Ossi, Zenger, Kai

Combustion characteristics of oxygenated fuels Ethanol-and Butanol-gasoline fuel blends, and their impact on performance, emissions and Soot Index

2019-01-2307

12/19/2019

Oxygenated fuels are studied in spark combustion engines because of their potentially positive impact on greenhouse emissions, and as part of alternative renewable fuels. Furthermore, engine test results position them as a promising lever to reduce engine-out emissions, and most notably, particles. This study focuses on oxygenated fuel Butanol, which is a potential output of recent developments on Algae and Cyanobacteria harvest process. Its blending into gasoline and application into spark ignition engines is investigated. Blending levels of n-Butanol and iso-Butanol have been proposed based on standard gasoline’s octane number, RON, at two ethanol concentration levels, 10 and 25%. Fuel blend impact on combustion, and on regulated and non-regulated emissions is analysed. Fuel knock resistance properties, RON and MON, determine the knocking tendencies for ethanol and butanol at 2000 rpm. However, test results highlight different knocking sensibility behaviour at higher engine speed. Emission results also illustrate a strong advantage of Butanol on particle mass emissions. Soot indices, that are conventionally used to quantify the impact of a fuel over particle emissions, are studied and confronted to results obtained on ethanol blends. The deviation in Particle Matter Indices obtained for butanol blends is analysed, on the basis of specific operating points. It highlights different particle emissions responses to the increase of oxygenates ethanol and butanol, not uniquely correlated to oxygen and aromatic concentration.

Anselmi, P., Matrat, M., Starck, L., Duffour, F.