This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended as a source of comparative information and is subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This document describes currently used fuels and fuels which may be used in the future. Conventional gasoline and diesel fuels are intentionally omitted from this document.

AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee

Toward Predictive Combustion Modeling of CNG SI Engines in 1D Simulation Tools

2020-01-207909/15/2020

In the recent years, the interest in heavy-duty engines fueled with Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is increasing due to the necessity to comply with the stringent CO2 limitation imposed by national and international regulations. Indeed, the reduced number of carbon atoms of the NG molecule allows to reduce the CO2 emissions compared to a conventional fuel. The possibility to produce synthetic methane from renewable energy sources, or bio-methane from agricultural biomass and/or animal waste, contributes to support the switch from conventional fuel to CNG. To drive the engine development and reduce the time-to-market, the employment of numerical analysis is mandatory. This requires a continuous improvement of the simulation models toward real predictive analyses able to reduce the experimental R&D efforts. In this framework, 1D numerical codes are fundamental tools for system design, energy management optimization, and so on. The present work is focused on the improvement of the

Riccardi, Marco, Tufano, Daniela, Beatrice, Carlo, Bozza, Fabio, De Bellis, Vincenzo, Napolitano, Pierpaolo

The Use of Metallurgical Waste Gases as Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines

2020-01-213609/15/2020

The article concerns the use of waste metallurgical gas as a fuel for an internal combustion engine. Since the metallurgical gas parameters exclude the possibility of its use as the only fuel supplying the combustion engine, the concept of the so-called co-combustion of metallurgical gas with a secondary fuel with better energy parameters, which was natural gas. The positive effect of this concept was the energetic use of metallurgical gas, which is waste gas and was normally utilized by burning on a flare, emitting heat and toxic exhaust components to the environment. Benefits were also obtained in the form of: electricity generation and heat generation from the engine cooling system and from the exhaust system, which were used in the processes of purifying metallurgical production waste.

Brzeżański, Marek, Sciążko, Marek, Iluk, Tomasz

Improving the Processes of Thermal Preparation of an Automobile Engine with Petrol and Gas Supply Systems (Vehicle Engine with Petrol and LPG Supplying Systems)

2020-01-203109/15/2020

This article deals with the features of the thermal preparation system application on automobile engine, the heating of which to operating temperatures is carried out on petrol, and subsequent operation on liquefied petroleum gas. The main element of the heat treatment system is a phase-transfer heat accumulator, the task of which is to minimize the engine warm-up time and, therefore, reduce petrol consumption on warm-up modes. An information system has been developed (is being used) for remote monitoring and control of the thermal preparation processes of an engine with a thermal accumulator. The results of experimental studies on a passenger vehicle engine under various operating conditions have confirmed the effectiveness of using a phase-transfer heat accumulator to reduce the heating time of the coolant and reduce the consumption of petrol to warm up the engine. In particular, it was shown, that the proposed system, where engine was warmed up on petrol to 50 ° C at an ambient

Gritsuk, Igor, Pohorletskyi, Dmytro, Mateichyk, Vasyl, Symonenko, Roman, Tsiuman, Mykola, Volodarets, Mykyta, Bulgakov, Nickolay, Volkov, Vladimir, Vychuzhanin, Vladimir, Grytsuk, Yuriy, Ahieiev, Maksym, Sadovnyk, Ivan

Experimental and Numerical Characterization of High-Pressure Methane Jets for Direct Injection in Internal Combustion Engines

2020-01-212409/15/2020

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is regarded as a promising fuel for spark-ignited (SI) internal combustion engines (ICE) to improve engine thermal efficiency and reduce both carbon dioxide and pollutant emissions. Significant advantages of CNG are higher-octane number, higher hydrogen to carbon ratio, and lower energy-specific CO2 emissions compared with gasoline. More, it can be produced in renewable ways, and is more widespread and cheaper than conventional liquid fossil fuels. In this regard, the direct injection of CNG engines can be considered a promising technology for highly efficient and low-emission future engines. This work reports an experimental and numerical characterization of high-pressure methane jets from a multi-hole injector for direct injection engines. The tests were performed in a constant volume (CV) combustion chamber under a broad range of operating conditions in terms of injection pressure, in the range 1.0 - 5.0 MPa, and ambient back-pressure in between 0.05 to

Montanaro, Alessandro, Allocca, Luigi, De Vita, Angelo, Ranieri, Stefano, Duronio, Francesco, Meccariello, Giovanni

Particulate Matter (PM) Emissions of Euro 5 and Euro 6 Vehicles Using Systems with Evaporation Tube or Catalytic Stripper and 23 nm or 10 nm Counters

2020-01-220309/15/2020

Particle number (PN) emission limits were introduced in the European Union’s regulations for light-duty and heavy duty vehicles in the years 2011-2014. Since then, PN measurements have become a common practice in the automotive sector. Many studies showed that the current methodology, which counts particles >23 nm, misses a large fraction of particles for some engine technologies, such as port fuel injection vehicles or vehicles fueled with compressed natural gas (CNG). However, data for the latest technology vehicles are lacking. For this reason, we measured PN emissions >23 nm and >10 nm of >30 CNG, gasoline and diesel-fueled vehicles. Two systems were measuring in parallel from the full dilution tunnel; one with an evaporation tube and the other with a catalytic stripper. The PN emission levels spanned over three orders of magnitude depending on whether there was a particulate filter installed or not. The differences between the two systems (>23 nm) were on average 6%, indicating

Giechaskiel, Barouch, Woodburn, Joseph, Szczotka, Andrzej, Bielaczyc, Piotr

Analysis of Cold Start Emission from Light Duty Vehicles Fueled with Gasoline and LPG for Selected Ambient Temperatures

2020-01-220709/15/2020

The exhaust emission from modern vehicles is reduced by catalysts except for cold start phase. The difference in emissions for unheated catalysts is large and can reach several times higher than the emission for the heated thermal state of the engine. In the dyno tests, the analysis of the duration and volume of the emissions for harmful exhaust components: CO2 (carbon dioxide), CO (carbon monoxide), THC (total hydrocarbons), NOx (nitrogen oxides) at various climatic chamber operating temperatures, i.e. 0-30oC, for a vehicle meeting the EURO3 and EURO6 standards was performed. Stationary analyzers AVL AMA i60 were used to measure the emissions. The article presents the differences in the emissions for the cold-start phase of engine operation and the duration of time passing to a heated engine for vehicles powered by petrol and LPG (liquefied petroleum gas). The work shows the analysis of modal emissions as well as bag emission.

Jaworski, Artur, Mądziel, Maksymilian, Kuszewski, Hubert, Lejda, Kazimierz, Balawender, Krzysztof, Jaremcio, Mirosław, Jakubowski, Mirosław, Wojewoda, Paweł, Lew, Krzysztof, Ustrzycki, Adam

Numerical Methods on VVA and VCR Concepts for Fuel Economy Improvement of a Commercial CNG Truck

2020-01-208309/15/2020

Natural gas has been used in spark-ignition (SI) engines of natural gas vehicles (NGVs) due to its resource availability and stable price compared to gasoline. It has the potential to reduce carbon monoxide emissions from the SI engines due to its high hydrogen-to-carbon ratio. However, short running distance is an issue of the NGVs. In this work, methodologies to improve the fuel economy of a heavy-duty commercial truck under the Japanese Heavy-Duty Driving Cycle (JE05) is proposed by numerical 1D-CFD modeling. The main objective is a comparative analysis to find an optimal fuel economy under three variable mechanisms, variable valve timing (VVT), variable valve actuation (VVA), and variable compression ratio (VCR). Experimental data are taken from a six-cylinder turbocharged SI engine fueled by city gas 13A. The 9.83 L production engine is a CR11 type with a multi-point injection system operated under a stoichiometric mixture. For minimizing optimal valve strategy selections and

Sok, Ratnak, Takeuchi, Kazuki, Yamaguchi, Kyohei, Kusaka, Jin

Experimental Study on Ignitability of Lean CNG/Air Mixture in the Multi-Stage Cascade Engine Combustion System

2020-01-208409/15/2020

Lean air-gas mixture combustion systems seem to be very promising solutions for IC engines in terms of lower emission indexes and higher thermal efficiency, especially in part-load operation. The main problem however is the necessity to provide the bigger activation energy for ignition of lean and very lean mixtures. In several publications and in research performed by the authors of this paper it has been confirmed, that the implementation of turbulent jet ignition (TJI) results in significantly faster inflammation of lean CNG/air mixture due to the improvement in on-ignition mechanism. The TJI-system consists of two chambers connected with nozzles. The orifices generate complex charge movement and decrease significantly the charge homogeneity in the pre-chamber, interrupting therefore first ignition process. The main research question of the investigations reported here was to improve this unfavorable property and to validate better inflammation ability in the pre-chamber by applying

Bueschke, Wojciech, Szwajca, Filip, Wislocki, Krzysztof

Comparative Studies of Exhaust Emissions from Three City Buses in Real Traffic Conditions, One with LNG, the Other with CI Engine and a Hybrid Bus

2020-01-219109/15/2020

There is a growing appreciation for using buses powered by alternative fuels in urban transport. Considered as such are city bus with engines fuelled with LNG and hybrid bus. This article, as shown above, provides a comparison of road exhaust emissions from three city buses: one with a CI engine fuelled with diesel fuel, and the other with a SI engine fuelled with LNG and Hybrid bus. Both vehicles (CI and LNG) conformed to Euro VI emission standard (hybrid bus EEV), and the tests were carried out in real traffic conditions. Equivocal opinions about differences in emissions from those types of buses, among others - CO2 and NOx emissions, were the underlying cause of the tests. The comparative study was carried out along the same urban routes during bus trips over the following days in similar traffic conditions. Exhaust road emission was determined based on the vehicle's curb weight and route length, and operating fuel consumption. Also, the study was consistent with the most

Gis, Wojciech, Gis, Maciej, Pielecha, Jacek

Smart Sensors for Hazardous Areas

TBMG-3766309/01/2020

Smart wireless sensors for rotating machines are deployed in thousands of installations worldwide. But producing a cost-effective and easy-to-deploy sensor solution for motors and pumps operating in hazardous areas, is a challenge. These are areas where the presence of flammable vapor or gases requires special precautions to prevent the risk of explosion. The lack of such sensors has limited the range of machinery that could be remotely monitored and has left a huge gap in the ability to gain meaningful information on the health and performance of motors that operate equipment such as pumps, fans, and compressors. It has also resulted in an increased safety risk for operators who need to venture into hazardous areas of plants to carry out condition monitoring of equipment.

Enhanced Fabrication Improves Temperature Sensing in Cryogenic Humid Environments

TBMG-3747108/01/2020

A team of researchers at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center have developed a new manufacturing process that improves the ability of fiber optic sensing systems to measure temperature and liquid levels when operating in humid environments. The process involves eliminating moisture from the optical fiber coating, then completing the sensor assembly within humidity-controlled conditions. The resulting sensor hardware provides precise and accurate measurements even when operating in a humid environment. Originally designed to monitor a rocket’s cryogenic fuel levels in conjunction with NASA’s patented Fiber Optic Sensing System (FOSS), this technology can be used in many industrial, food, and medical applications.

Valve Leakage Detection in Industrial Pumps

TBMG-3738308/01/2020

As an integral part of onshore and offshore drilling, mud pumps circulate drilling fluids to facilitate drilling oil and natural gas wells. Mud pumps stabilize pressure and support the well during the drilling process and drilling fluids provide friction reduction and a means to remove cuttings. A leak detection system for hex pumps was created for a hex mud pump with six pistons, six suction valves, and six discharge valves. The six pistons are driven by a rotating, asymmetric cam. The system monitors the suction and discharge valves using accelerometers.

Natural Gas: Meeting CO2 Emission Targets Here and Now

2020-37-002406/23/2020

Global energy consumption trends are running counter to the need to rapidly and drastically reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The increasing demand for energy and associated growth in emissions means that we must deploy market-ready, commercially-available solutions now. Europe’s recently enacted heavy-duty CO2 regulations require truck OEMs to achieve a fleet average CO2 reduction of 15% (by 2025) and 30% (2030) from the 2019 industry baseline, with significant fines for missing these targets. OEMs are under considerable pressure to abandon the internal combustion engine (ICE) and move toward fuel cells and battery electric solutions. This drive away from ICEs has gathered considerable momentum, but also misses the short term reality – the infrastructure and overwhelming mass of existing product is built on the ICE, and it will take time and considerable investment to replace. In the automotive sector, the path to electric vehicles is already starting to evolve, however cost

Mumford, David

Reconsidering CNG as an alt-fuel solution

20AUTP05_1005/01/2020

As CO2 emission standards continue to tighten, the future of the IC engine may be inexorably tied to alternative fuels. As automakers seek propulsion solutions delivering convenience and performance similar to gasoline or diesel, without radical changes to infrastructure, some experts say it's time to reconsider the gaseous-fuel alternative. OEMs and markets have largely rejected CNG (compressed natural gas) and LNG (liquified natural gas), preferring hybridization as a steppingstone to full electrification. Those fuels did not enter mainstream use “because their benefits have been compromised by dual-fuel installations that require the engine to also operate on gasoline,” argues Mike Bassett, chief engineer for research at Mahle Powertrain.

Birch, Stuart

Performance of a Printed Bimetallic (Stainless Steel and Bronze) Engine Head Operating under Stoichiometric and Lean Spark Ignited (SI) Combustion of Natural Gas

2020-01-077004/14/2020

Additive manufacturing was used to fabricate a head for an automotive-scale single-cylinder engine operating on natural gas. The head was consisted of a bimetallic composition of stainless steel and bronze. The engine performance using the bimetallic head was compared against the stock cast iron head. The heads were tested at two speeds (1200 and 1800 rpm), two brake mean effective pressures (6 and 10 bar), and two equivalence ratios (0.7 and 1.0). The bimetallic head showed good durability over the test and produced equivalent efficiencies, exhaust temperatures, and heat rejection to the coolant to the stock head. Higher combustion temperatures and advanced combustion phasing resulted from use with the bimetallic head. The implication is that with optimization of the valve timing, an efficiency benefit may be realized with the bimetallic head.

Kass, Michael, Biruduganti, Munidhar, Kaul, Brian, Storey, John, Longman, Douglas, Elliott, Amelia, Siddel, Derek

Measurement of Fuel Distribution in a Small PFI Spark-Ignition Engine Using Tracer PLIF

2020-01-0786

04/14/2020

The distribution of fuel-air mixture inside the engine cylinder strongly influences the combustion process. Planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) is commonly used for fuel distribution measurement, however, it is mostly reported on moderate- to large-sized engines. In the present work, PLIF is applied to measure the fuel distribution inside the cylinder of a small, four-stroke, port-fuel-injection (PFI), spark-ignition engine with displacement volume of 110 cm3. Iso-octane was used as the base fuel, and 3-pentanone (15% by volume) was added as a fluorescent tracer in the base fuel. The effect of equivalence ratio, considering ϕ = 1.2, 1.0, and 0.8, on in-cylinder fuel distribution was studied with low throttle opening of 25% at 1200 rpm. PLIF images were recorded at different crank angle degrees during both intake and compression strokes over a swirl measurement plane located at the TDC position. It was found that the fuel stratification was present from intake to even late

Garg, Shubham, Mittal, Mayank, Sahu, Srikrishna, Lakshminarasimhan, V

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