ABSTRACT Over time, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has refined the 4Dimension / Real-time Control System (4D/RCS) architecture for use in Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs). This architecture, when applied to a fully autonomous vehicle designed for missions in urban environments, can greatly assist in the process of saving time and lives by creating a more intelligent vehicle that acts in a safer and more efficient manner. Southwest Research Institute (SwRI®) has undertaken the Southwest Safe Transport Initiative (SSTI) aimed at investigating the development and commercialization of vehicle autonomy as well as vehicle-based telemetry systems to improve active safety systems and autonomy. This paper will discuss the implementation of the 4D/RCS architecture to the SSTI autonomous vehicle, a 2006 Ford Explorer.

McWilliams, George, Brown, Michael

Data Dictionary for Quantities Used in Cyber Physical Systems (Enhanced License)

AS6969_DA (Current)07/29/2024

Enhanced License for Data Dictionary for Quantities Used in Cyber Physical Systems (AS6969) allowing for greater usage as outlined in the terms of the Enhanced License. Terms can be reviewed prior to purchase once item is added to the cart. Data Dictionary for Quantities Used in Cyber Physical Systems (AS6969) This data dictionary provides a mathematically coherent set of definitions for quantity types used in data models for unmanned systems. In this data dictionary, a quantity is defined as a property of a phenomenon, substance, or body whose value has magnitude.

AS-4UCS Unmanned Systems Control Segment Architecture

SAE TOMORROW TODAY UNPLUGGED: Can Autonomous Vehicles Eliminate Distracted Driving?

1346507/10/2024

Distracted driving is an epidemic that shows no signs of slowing down. But autonomous vehicles could be the cure. As NHTSA gets ready to publish new data on distracted driving, hear from Grayson Brulte, Host of SAE Tomorrow Today, on why the addiction to our smart phones must be dealt with--and how AVs can help. Have your own thoughts on this topic? We'd love to hear from you! Share your comments, questions or ideas for future topics with Grayson on Twitter or send them to podcast@sae.org.

Hineman, Marcie

Designing an Uncrewed Aircraft Systems Control Model for an Air-to-Ground Collaborative System

01-17-02-0014

02/19/2024

Abstract In autonomous technology, uncrewed aircraft systems have already become the preferred platform for the research and development of flight control systems. Although they are subjected to following and satisfying complicated scenarios of control stations, this high dependency on a specific control framework limits them in their application process and reduces the flight self-organizing network. In this article, we present a developed multilayer control system protocol with the additional supportive manned aircraft layer (Tender). The novelty of the introduced model is that uncrewed aircraft systems are monitored and navigated by the tender, and then based on the suggested scheme, data flows are controlled and transferred across the network by the developed cloud–robotics approach in the ground station layer. Therefore, it has been tried to design a semi-autonomous control network to gather data that combines human observation and the automotive nature of uncrewed aircraft

Millar, Richard C., Laliberté, Jeremy, Mahmoodi, Armin, Hashemi, Leila, Meyer, Robert Walter

Active-Learning method : An effective way to generate ground truth data to test & validate ADAS functions

2024-26-036401/16/2024

In today’s autonomous industry, Machine learning plays an important role in development of various functions for self-driving vehicles. The learning models are trained using data, and their performance is determined by the quality of data they get trained on. For autonomous driving, sometimes, we don't have valid data and our model doesn't know what to do. As a result, the models must be trained on as much as diverse data as possible to make them efficient to deal with unusual situations in the actual world. Huge amount of unlabeled data is collected by cars moving around, equipped with multiple sensors to capture the surrounding environment in a frame. It becomes difficult to annotate each data manually and find data frame with more information. Therefore, automated methods are needed to identify and extract the most informative data from collected ones. Active learning is a powerful data selection technique which improves data efficiency for learning models. In Active Learning, the

Katariya, Rashmi, Kumari, Anita

The Scope of Autonomous Vehicle Mobility with an Indian Context

2024-26-008701/16/2024

The advent of autonomous vehicles promises to revolutionize the transportation sector globally, and India, as one of the world's fastest-growing economies, stands at the forefront of this transformative technology. This abstract presents a brief overview of the current state and potential implications of autonomous vehicles in the Indian context. With its densely populated cities, diverse traffic conditions, and complex road infrastructure, India presents unique challenges and opportunities for the deployment of autonomous vehicles. This technology has the potential to address critical issues such as road safety, congestion, and pollution while transforming the mobility experience for millions of people. However, several hurdles must be overcome to fully harness its benefits. The abstract explores key considerations for the implementation of autonomous vehicles in India. These include adapting the technology to navigate chaotic traffic scenarios, addressing infrastructure limitations

Shetty, Sharan Harish

Reinforcement Learning based Parking Space Egress for Autonomous Driving Scenarios

2024-26-008801/16/2024

Automated parking systems for cars have become the need of the hour in all nations. They have gained wide acceptance from customers, and hence OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) are working towards achieving precise/accurate automated parking. Various algorithms are being developed to plan the trajectory of the vehicle to be moved in/out of the desired parking slot. Most of these algorithms consider a static environment and don’t account for dynamic objects in parking-out scenarios. In this paper, we intend to develop an algorithm which considers traffic objects while moving effectively along the planned trajectory by giving the 'right of way' to the traffic object. In this study, we specifically propose a novel approach for generating linear and angular velocity profiles using reinforcement learning (RL) in conjunction with Hybrid A* path planning for autonomous vehicles (AVs) navigating parking maneuvers. The aim is to address challenges faced by traditional Model Predictive

A R, Vimal Kumar, Theerthala, Raghu Ram

New 5G opportunities, Risk and autonomous vehicles.

2024-26-008501/16/2024

With the rapid advancement in 5G technologies and the global network roll out, the autonomous vehicle space is seeing many Opportunities, The Automotive Industry with its Connected Vehicles is expected to heavily utilize the 5G network features such as low latency, high-bandwidth, and network slicing. Current Network capabilities has restricted the Connected space in Automotive to Basic features like track & trace, DTCs, Online Diagnostics and Predictive maintenance at best. Almost all of the control functions in vehicles today are processed in on-board ECUs but Novel technologies like Autonomous Fleet/Vehicles, ADAS demands this functions to be integrated with connected environment. With the low latency High speed environment of 5G such time critical processing is possible at the cloud end. We can move some ECU functions of autonomous vehicles to the cloud or use a hybrid of cloud and on-board processing model in autonomous vehicles with 5G connectivity. Cloud-based ECUs will create

Mahali, Rakesh, JAGTAP, Pramod

Generation of tire digital twin for virtual MBD simulation of vehicles for durability, NVH and handling evaluation

2024-26-030101/16/2024

With the recent development in virtual modelling and vehicle simulation technology, many OEM's worldwide are using digital road profiles in virtual environment for vehicle durability load prediction and virtual design evaluation. For precise simulation results, it is important to have the tire digital twin which is the realistic representation of tire in the virtual environment. The study comprises of discussion about different types of tire models such as empirical, solid model, rigid ring model and flexural ring models such as Pacejka, MF Swift, CD tire, F tire etc. and also the complexity involved in development of these tire models. Generation of virtual tire model requires highly sophisticated test rigs as well as vehicle level testing with Wheel Force transducers and other vehicle dynamics sensors. The large number of data points generated with testing are converted in standard TYDEX format to be further processed in various software tool for virtual model generation. Thus, a

Bakal, Nikhil

Liv-in vehicle of the future

2024-26-023701/16/2024

Liv-in vehicle of the future is a pioneer providing sustainable, highly customizable electric LCV solutions offering automated to autonomous driving, seamless connectivity to customers' ecosystems, peace-of-mind reliability and improved productivity and profitability. For flexibility, versatility, and economies of scale, modularity is essential. With a modular EV design, different vehicle models can share the same platform or components. This can accelerate development and provide manufacturing efficiencies, resulting in significant cost savings. With modular components parts sourcing is more efficient, and inventory management, processing, and storage are simplified. One plant can produce multiple vehicle variants far more easily and efficiently, with less complexity of retooling and physical layout changes. Advantages a) Reduced design and development costs. b) A flexible architecture that can be used for a variety of vehicle types. c) Economies of scale. d) Proven performance from

Dias, Francis Anton, Mane, Sushant

Bi-directional adjustable holder for LiDAR sensor - Assembly findings and solutions

2024-26-002401/16/2024

LiDAR stands for Light Detection and Ranging and it works on the Principle of reflection of light. LiDAR is one among the other sensors like radar and camera to achieve a high level (Level 3 & above) of Autonomous driving capabilities. LiDAR, as a sensor, is used to perceive the environment in 3D by calculating the 'Time of flight' of the Laser beam transmitted from LiDAR and the rays reflected from the Object, along with the intensity of reflection from the object. The frame of perception is plotted as a point Cloud. LiDAR is assembled/ integrated on the roof of the vehicle/grill position of car having a high vantage point to perceive the environment in order to extract the best possible sensor performance. LiDAR sensor needs to be held in the front panel cutout with uniform gap however due to tolerance reasons it may have following issues: Function of the sensor can be affected if it is not aligned center to the cutout because the view cones will interfere with grill cutout edges

Pratap, Amit, Rangarej, Sanjeev

Developing, Integrating & Testing Deep Learning-based Perception for Autonomous Vehicles using MATLAB / Simulink and Unreal Engine

2024-26-008601/16/2024

Abstract: My motivation is to work on titled project is to utilize my three decades of experience in automotive to develop and validate a work flow and technologies for self-driving vehicle for the community and society we live to address challenges faced by a driver. As per the Traffic Safety data, it is observed that major reason for the road accident is due to human errors like decision errors, perception & performance error, who drives the vehicle. Other reasons for accidents are due to failure of vehicle and environment conditions. These are the problems and challenges being addressed through this project to make vehicle driving safe, accident free and having an enjoyable experience. A human driver does two major tasks/control while driving a vehicle. First task is to controls Lateral movement using Steering (Left or right turn) . Second task is to control Longitudinal (forward or slower movement) by applying Braking or Acceleration. These actions are performed by a Human driver

Sah, Rabindra

Assisted Steering Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Based on Combination of Driving and Braking

2023-01-701210/30/2023

This paper presents a low-speed assisted steering control approach for distributed drive electric vehicles. When the vehicle is driven at low speed, the braking of the inner-rear wheel is combined with differential drive to reduce the turning radius. A hierarchical control structure has been designed to achieve comprehensive control. The upper-level controller tracks the expected yaw rate and vehicle side-slip angle through a Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) algorithm. The desired yaw rate and vehicle side-slip angle are obtained according to the reference vehicle model, which can be regulated by the driver through the accelerator pedal. The lower-level controller uses a quadratic programming algorithm to distribute the yaw moment and driving moment to each wheel, aiming to minimize tire load rate variance. Simulation and real vehicle tests compare three steering modes: front-wheel steering only, front-wheel steering + differential drive assisted steering, and front-wheel steering

Wu, Dongmei, Wang, Cheng, Du, Changqing, Zhang, Yichao

SAE UNPLUGGED: Is Social Media Hindering AV Advancement?

1341910/25/2023

Today, there is a rush to be the first person to post a video or photo of an autonomous vehicle in a compromising light. But what impact is that having on the advancement of the industry? Many of us don't know the history of aviation and the risks that were taken to advance flight. Autonomous vehicles are having their Wright Brothers moment. When new technologies are developed and commercialized, there's always risk. What makes it worth it is the resulting technology that will decrease road fatalities and put an end to distracted driving. Join Grayson Brulte, Host of SAE Tomorrow Today, as he uses history to explain why society must avoid click-bait coverage of the AV industry to advance autonomy and make our world safer. Have your own thoughts on this topic? We'd love to hear from you! Share your comments, questions or ideas for future topics with Grayson on Twitter or send them to podcast@sae.org.

Hineman, Marcie

Technical evaluation of the obstacle detection for autonomous shuttle buses

2023-01-122706/26/2023

With the law on autonomous driving and the associated ordinance, it has been possible in Germany since June 2022 to grant operating permission to vehicles with autonomous driving function and to admit them to road traffic. For public transport, autonomous shuttle buses offer the opportunity to maintain the existing service despite a shortage of personnel and to close gaps in supply. The safety of vehicle occupants, other road users and third parties is a key concern in the operation of autonomous shuttle buses. As part of the project "Reallabor für den Automatisierten Busbetrieb im ÖPNV in der Stadt und auf dem Land" ("Reallabor for Automated Bus Operation in Public Transport in Urban and Rural Areas", or RABus for short), which is funded by the Ministry of Transport Baden-Württemberg, the operational reliability of autonomous shuttle buses in public transport is being scientifically investigated. In the implementation of autonomous driving, obstacle detection/avoidance is a safety

Gao, Kun, Weinrich, Ulrike, Riemer, Thomas, Reuss, Hans-Christian

Design of a Robust Optimal Multivariable Control for a Steer-by-Wire System

2023-01-121806/26/2023

On the way to highly automated and autonomous driving, a robustly designed steering system is a key component. Therefore, the proposed article will present a new control approach for modern steer-by-wire systems. The novel approach consists of a true multivariable control for the driver´s steering torque and the rack position simultaneously using the requested torques of the downstream (SRU) and upstream (SFU) motor as control variables. Here, the plant model is a detailed model of a steer-by-wire system with nine degrees of freedom (see Fig.1). For the control design, an optimal reduced model is derived. The reduced plant model is linearized and augmented by linear models for the reference and disturbance environment of the steer-by-wire system and by a linearized model for the complete feeling generator computing the requested steering torque. The feeling generator consists of a rack force feedback, an active damping and an active steering wheel return. For this augmented model, a

Irmer, Marcus, Degen, René, Nüßgen, Alexander, Thomas PhD, Karin, Ruschitzka PhD, Margot, Henrichfreise PhD, Hermann

Design of a Model-Based Optimal Multivariable Control for the Individual Wheel Slip of a Two-Track Vehicle

2023-01-121906/26/2023

The concept of autonomous driving has become increasingly relevant. This is why innovative drive concepts for motor vehicles need to be developed. Therefore, a model-based optimal multivariable control for the wheel slip is presented in this paper. This allows to specify the slip, and thus the tire force, individually for each wheel. The plant model consists of a planar and stiff multibody two-track model of a vehicle, a complex tire model as well as a simple air resistance and motor model. In addition, the contact forces of the individual wheels are calculated dynamically. A special feature of the multibody model is that the vehicle's position variables are defined by integrating the velocity variables. The linearized model derived from the nonlinear model is used to design a linear optimal static state space controller (LQR) including reference and disturbance feedforward. The contact point velocities of the tires are defined as the controlled variables, since they are proportional

Irmer, Marcus, Rosenthal, Robert, Nüßgen, Alexander, Degen, René, Thomas PhD, Karin, Ruschitzka PhD, Margot

AI-Based Testing for Autonomous Vehicles

2023-01-122806/26/2023

Test of autonomous systems is mostly brute force and ad-hoc thus being neither efficient nor transparent. Though requirements invite for a situational transparency, a framework is missing to judge quality of requirements and derived test-cases. Practical challenges are state explosion, difficulty to derive corner cases, no systematic safety of the intended functionality as specified, lack of accepted KPI, etc. Maintaining a valid safety case is hardly possible with such adaptive systems and continuous software updates. To achieve trusted autonomous vehicles, test cases must be generated automatically while at same time providing coverage (e.g., indicating progress with KPI), efficiency (e.g., limiting the amount of regression testing) and transparency (e.g., showing how specific corner cases are tested in case of accidents). This paper provides a method for automatically generating test cases for AI-based autonomous systems and compares it with existing testing methods. A case study is

Ebert, Christof, Weyrich, Michael

"Objectifying Visual Perception for Automotive Screens through Vibration Targets"

2025-01-004305/05/2023

New mobility concepts with smart infrastructure have led to enhanced customer driving experience. The potential to develop safe cars with minimal driver intervention is a great need of the future. The cusp for fully autonomous driving has produced much technical talk, which has led to faster transition and adoption. One of the features that global OEMs have tried to focus on, is Human Machine Interface (HMI) solutions, popularly called display screens. The touchscreen HMIs are common in all mid-range budget cars. They offer driver support beyond just streaming music, including inputs for navigation, parking assistance, in-car technologies, ADAS, and infotainment. Poor display screen visibility is a phenomenon observed when a vehicle is driven over different road surfaces. This paper presents a user-centric approach for the right design & development of the HMI for a vibration free driving experience. The mounting strategies for the display screens, from the existing projects were

ADIL, MD SHAHZAD, C M, MITHUN, Mohammed, Riyazuddin, R, Prasath

Reducing LiDAR Cabin Noise with Damped Elastomers: a Novel Method for Predicting Performance and Durability

2025-01-011405/05/2023

Mechanical LiDAR units utilize spinning lasers to scan surrounding areas to enable limited autonomous driving. The motors within the LiDAR modules create noise that can leak into the cabin of a vehicle. Decoupling the module from the body of the vehicle with highly damped elastomers can reduce the acoustic noise in the cabin and improve the driving experience. Damped elastomers work by absorbing the vibrational energy and dispelling it as latent heat, which creates challenges in an unpredictable automotive environment. Throughout the development process with vehicle OEMs and LiDAR ODMs, highly damped elastomers were able to effectively reduce the noise created by the scanning LiDAR modules in a laboratory environment. It was unproven that these elastomers would be as effective in extreme heat, cold, or humid environments. Extensive bench and vehicle tests were conducted, but confidence was low without a model to predict behavior at edge-cases. By creating a unique test method to model

Russell, Casey, Masterson, Peter, O'Connell, Kerry

Development and Evaluation of Comfort Assessment Approaches for Passengers in Autonomous Vehicles

2023-01-0788

04/11/2023

Passenger comfort is a critical factor in user acceptance of autonomous vehicles (AVs). Despite existing methods for passenger comfort assessment, new approaches to assessing passenger comfort in AVs may be valuable to the automotive industry. In this paper, continuous pressing-based and discrete smartphone-based approaches for comfort assessment were designed and implemented in a user study. Participants used the two approaches to evaluate their comfort levels in an experimental study based on a high-fidelity autonomous driving simulator. Performances of the two approaches in assessing comfort levels were analyzed and compared. In general, the discrete approach showed better measurement repeatability and lower measurement bias than the continuous approach. The performance gap of the continuous approach could be reduced with proper post-processing measures. Discussions on the potential uses of the approaches were also raised.

Su, Haotian, Brooks, Johnell, Jia, Yunyi

Aerodynamics of Landing Maneuvering of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle in Close Proximity to a Ground Vehicle

2023-01-0118

04/11/2023

Autonomous takeoff and landing maneuvers of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) from/on a moving ground vehicle (GV) have been an area of active research for the past several years. For military missions requiring repeated flight operations of the UAV, precise landing ability is important for autonomous docking into a recharging station, since such stations are often mounted on a ground vehicle. The development of precise and efficient control algorithms for this autonomous maneuvering has two key challenges; one is related to flight aerodynamics and the other is related to a precise detection of the landing zone. The aerodynamic challenges include understanding the complex interaction of the flows over the UAV and GV, potential ground effects at the proximity of the landing surface, and the impact of the variations in the surrounding wind flow and ambient conditions. While a large body of work in this area can be found on the control aspect of the UAV landing and takeoff maneuvers