Browse Topic: Quality function deployment

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Adaptive Resilient Engineered Structures: A Review of the Trade Study Results and the Proposed Phase II Structural Test DemonstratorF-0081-2025-01985/20/2025
The work performed for the Adaptive Resilient Engineered Structures (ARES) program sponsored by the U.S. Army constitutes a trade study and resulting proposal for a structural demonstrator platform. The trade study was conducted using the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) process and a subsequent Artificial Intelligence (AI) exercise to find clusters of technologies for structural efficiency and resilience from Boeing's internal research activities. From a selection of approximately 150 technologies at different TRLs, Boeing subject matter experts (SMEs) for structural technologies identified several characteristics that could potentially determine the development of ARES structural demonstrator. Through the QFD process, the list of technologies was down selected about 50 unique technologies for consideration. The next stage of the QFD process entailed in identifying 37 different attributes or criteria long which each of these technologies would be assessed. They were grouped under two different categories: vehicle performance criteria and program performance criteria. Importance scores were provided by the SMEs independently and then a statistical approach for AI was used to distill them to 9 significant ones (labeled as 'Pillars') and a further distillation to 3 significant features (labeled as 'Super Metrics'). Clustering algorithms were then employed to group the set of technologies that could provide the resiliency targets sought for the demonstrator platform. The clusters were compared a hypothetical ideal platform to determine suitability and finally, 12 technologies merited attention toward the stated goals of the demonstrator platform.
Nevinsky, Michael, Sircar, Saurabh, Misciagna, David, Lorthridge, Derrell
Processes for Engineering a SystemEIA632A (Current)2/23/2021
The purpose of this Standard is to provide an integrated set of fundamental processes to aid a developer in the engineering or reengineering of a system. Use of this Standard is intended to help developers a) establish and evolve a complete and consistent set of requirements that will enable delivery of feasible and cost-effective system solutions; b) satisfy requirements within cost, schedule, and risk constraints; c) provide a system, or any portion of a system, that satisfies stakeholders over the life of the products that make up the system. NOTE—The term product is used in this standard to mean: a physical item, such as a satellite (end product), or any of its component parts (end products); a software item such as a stand-alone application to run within an existing system (end product); or a document such as a plan, or a service such as test, training, or maintenance support, or equipment such as a simulator (enabling products). d) provide for the safe and/or cost-effective disposal or retirement of a system.
G-47 Systems Engineering
Enriching Systems Theory Based Cyber-Security and Safety Analysis Using Stakeholder Value Networks2020-01-01434/14/2020
System-theoretic process analysis for security (STPA-Sec) is a powerful safety and security analysis method that focuses on unsafe and unsecure interactions between subsystems rather than component failure and its resulting chain-of-event failure modes. The first step of STPA-Sec requires the analyst to identify the system boundary and list the system losses and hazards. Current approach to performing this first and critical step of STPA-Sec requires interviewing the stakeholders and could potentially result in a narrow focus due to stakeholder’s mental model and resulting answers to questions. In some cases, stakeholders are not available for interviews and we risk influencing the system loss identification by the mental model of the analyst. We believe these two potential issues in the STPA-Sec analysis: narrow focus and missing access to stakeholder, can be address by factoring additional system information through stakeholder analysis. To illustrate the benefit of this approach a mining system is considered. Stakeholders in the mining system are identified and then classified based on the role that they play in the expected emergent behavior of the system. Stakeholder needs are identified and ranked. A stakeholder value network (map) is created with stakeholder as nodes and value exchanges between them representing the connections. A ranked list of value exchanges is created based on the impact of cybersecurity on the stakeholder map. System level-losses are identified from high impact value exchanges, which can then be fed into the step 1 of STPA-Sec analysis. A system level goal statement, derived from the stakeholder analysis, is used as a guiding statement and an aid in drawing a boundary around the system.
Sidhu, Amardeep, Moulton, Allen
Design of a Reconfigurable Assembly Cell for Multiple Aerostructures2016-01-21059/27/2016
This paper presents novel development of a reconfigurable assembly cell which assembles multiple aerostructure products. Most aerostructure assembly systems are designed to produce one variant only. For multiple variants, each assembly typically has a dedicated assembly cell, despite most assemblies requiring a process of drilling and fastening to similar tolerances. Assembly systems that produce more than one variant do exist but have long changeover or involve extensive retrofitting. Quick assembly of multiple products using one assembly system offers significant cost savings from reductions in capital expenditure and lead time. Recent trends advocate Reconfigurable Assembly Systems (RAS) as a solution; designed to have exactly the functionality necessary to produce a group of similar components. A state-of-the-art review finds significant benefits in deploying RAS for a group of aerostructures variants. What’s more, improvements to robot accuracy and decreasing costs of capital equipment means reconfigurable systems are becoming more economically viable. Designing the part family for commonality and robotic assembly from the outset enables the assembly system to be quickly customised to each variant using modular tooling. A novel design framework is introduced to manage the design complexity and iterations between design and manufacturing. The framework innovation restructures the design process so design and manufacturing teams can collaborate precisely on structural design for assembly, enabling reconfigurability with the use of common assembly processes. The work presents the development of a RAS demonstrator and wingbox which is designed using the framework.
Jefferson, Thomas G., Crossley, Richard, Smith, Anthony, Ratchev, Svetan
Aerial Commuter Architecture Using Slung LoadsF-0072-2016-113615/17/2016
Evading traffic congestion by personal flying vehicle is still a far fetched dream. Recent advancements in predicting divergence speeds of slung loads using the Continuous Rotation Method (CRM) of airloads measurement has made is possible to obtain complete aerodynamic load maps of objects. In turn this enables on-the-fly system identification and dynamics predictions to ensure safety and smooth rides with slung loads. A concept is proposed for an air-lift service which can transport people with their personal road vehicles over congested areas. QFD and OEC analyses are used to compare different VTOL options for such a system. A pure conventional helicopter with internal or external carriage, a quadrotor, a lighter-than-air (LTA) platform with a quadrotor, and an LTA with cycloidal rotors are compared. The last two are found to be feasible, with only the LTA-cycloidal meeting all requirements when downwash and noise constraints are imposed. A streamlined carriage concept with aerodynamic control surfaces is suggested. A HUMVEE is used as an example where aerodynamic load mapping has been done, and the data used in predicting dynamics. This shows how to estimate the speed constraints to keep oscillations below specified levels, and verify the safety of the flight envelope.
Shukla, Dhwanil, Hiremath, Nandeesh, Komerath, Narayanan
Automobile Powertrain Sound Quality Development Using a Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) Approach2015-01-23366/15/2015
Automotive companies are studying to add extra value in their vehicles by enhancing powertrain sound quality. The objective is to create a brand sound that is unique and preferred by their customers since quietness is not always the most desired characteristic, especially for high-performance products. This paper describes the process of developing a brand powertrain sound for a high-performance vehicle using the DFSS methodology. Initially the customer's preferred sound was identified and analyzed. This was achieved by subjective evaluations through voice-of-customer clinics using vehicles of similar specifications. Objective data were acquired during several driving conditions. In order for the design process to be effective, it is very important to understand the relationship between subjective results and physical quantities of sound. Several sound quality metrics were calculated during the data analysis process. A House of Quality (HOQ) matrix was created to characterize this correlation using the new metrics. Multiple sample candidate sounds were designed using sound design and simulation tools. A unique and preferred target sound was identified after an extensive double-elimination round of paired-comparison analysis of candidate sounds using an in-vehicle audio system. Final optimization was executed, with live jury, to demonstrate and verify the new unique and preferred sound.
Arvanitis, Anastasios, Orzechowski, Jeff, Tousignant, Todd, Govindswamy, Kiran
Application of QFD and KANO Model in Vehicle Technical Characteristics Setup2015-01-06064/14/2015
An automotive vehicle should be designed to satisfy the wants of customers. The key is how to convert voices of customers into engineering languages. In other words, transfer the wants of customers into the right technical characteristics of a vehicle. A questionnaire of customer wants for a CUV (Crossover Utility Vehicle) is created and processed. Using QFD (Quality Function Deployment) and modified KANO model, the relative important degree is obtained from the original relative important degree of customer wants surveyed. Since some information gained is uncertain and the questionnaire sample is limited, a gray correlation analysis method is introduced, which calculates the competitive important degree of customer wants, then the final important degree of customer wants is gained by integrating the relative important degree and the competitive important degree. In order to solve the correlation degree of the wants of customers and the vehicle technical characteristics, Six senior auto experts are investigated through a special designed questionnaire. According to the survey results, a correlation matrix of customer wants and technical characteristics is built up, thus the technical correlation degree of the wants of customers and the vehicle technical characteristics is calculated. Utilizing the final important degree of customer wants and the technical correlation degree, in other words, combining QFD with modified KANO model, the weight factors of the CUV's technical characteristics are set up finally.
Chen, Jiaquan, Qin, Min, Jin, Lingge, Tao, Liu, Jiang, Yongfeng, Wang, Wei, Chang, Yin-Ping
Non Intrusive Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery System for an Automobile: A Preliminary Investigation2013-01-280811/27/2013
A parallel flow concentric tube heat exchanger is designed to recover exhaust heat by using the exhaust pipe as the tube side and the concentric tube as the shell side. The heat exchanger which is also called the primary heat exchanger is welded concentrically to the intermediate exhaust pipe forming a double pipe heat exchanger. The shell side pipe consists of Cold Water inlet and Hot Water outlet, while the tube side pipe carries the hot exhaust gases. The water flowing in the shell side gets heated due to conduction and convection and is circulated through the Hot Water outlet to produce Hot Water on demand. The same Hot Water is simultaneously circulated to the annular chamber of the secondary heat exchanger, thereby transferring the heat to the Hot Box.
Neihguk, David, Rajaram, Aravindh, Rawte, Samir
Design with Uncertain Technology Evolution2012-01-09124/16/2012
A major decision to make in design projects is the selection of the best technology to provide some needed system functionality. In making this decision, the designer must consider the range of technologies available and the performance of each. During the useful life of the product, the technologies composing the product evolve as research and development efforts continue. The performance evolution rate of one technology may be such that even though it is not initially a preferably technology, it becomes a superior technology after a few years. Quantifying the evolution of these technologies complicates the technology selection decision. The selection of energy storage technology in the design of an electric car is one example of a difficult decision involving evolving technologies. In the first year of production, a particular battery cell technology provides the best vehicle performance; however, a few years later, an alternate battery technology may have evolved to a point that its performance surpasses the previous best battery technology. Designing with technologies whose levels of performance evolve over time is poorly understood. The objective of this research is to create a computational method allowing designers to make decisions with a greater understanding of the impact of the decision on the design. In this research, it is assumed that the performance of a technology develops in the form of an S-curve; slowly at first, quickly during heavy R&D spending, and slowly again as the technology approaches its limits. A key concept in this research is that performance evolution of a technology translates to a shift in the corresponding performance Pareto optimal frontier. The assumed form of technology development allows the designer to apply the uncertainty of technology development directly to the S-curve model rather than applying the uncertainty to the performance thus better reflecting the change in performance over time. A case study of designing a battery pack with evolving battery cell technologies in an electric car powertrain demonstrates this method.
Arendt, Jonathan L., Malak, Richard, McAdams, Daniel
Innovative Robust Solutions for Lean Manufacturing in Automotive Assembly Processes2011-01-12544/12/2011
The article presents an innovative approach to the implementation of a robust design optimization solution in an automobiles assembly process. The approach of the entire project is specific to the 6 Sigma optimization process, by applying the DMAIC cycle integrated in a robust engineering approach for rendering lean the final product assembly process. According to the improvement cycle, the aspects specific for such a process are presented sequentially starting with the “Define” phase for presenting the encountered problem and continuing with the presentation of the scope of the project and its objectives. The “Improvement” cycle phase is applied by the analysis of the monitored 6 Sigma metrics (defined during the previous “Measure” phase and the cause and effect analysis, done during a brainstorming meeting developed during the “Analyze” phase). There follows a proposal for the innovative robust solution by which the assembly process is optimized. Therefore, we propose the final assembly of already painted doors on the already assembled cars with a special work-holding which is easy to handle by the human operator. The automation of designed and implemented solutions provides features of error proofing for the assembly process in the case in which the doors are not located accordingly on the work-holding locating elements, which may lead to various inconveniences during the assembly on the vehicle and/or some faults of the door quality, such as scratches or deformations because of the impacts. The initially presented process indices, for the not yet optimized process are finally evaluated after the implementation of the innovative solution for a comparative study of the initial monitoring results and after the implementation of the proposed corrective solution. This underlines the critical conclusions that are induced during the “Control” phase. The final conclusions point to the corrective / preventive actions for a sustainable and reliable optimization, which give the maximal process its overall efficiency.
Negrus, Andrei Mihai, Mihail, Laurentiu Aurel, Chiru, Anghel
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) of Hydroformed Engine Cradle Design for SUV Application2011-26-01091/19/2011
In the new product design, meeting customer requirements, process alignment, timely execution and successful implementation plays a critical role. Six sigma methodology is a disciplined, standardized methodology supported by analytical tools to meet the quality and functional targets. An engine cradle or sub-frame is the principal load carrying member in a monocoque vehicle construction. It is extensively used to (i) provide structural support and retention of power train, suspension control arms, stabilizer bar, and steering rack mounting features (ii) to isolate the high frequency vibrations of engine and suspension from the remaining structures (iii) to absorb and transmit the impact forces during frontal crash. This paper attempts to explain (i) the various DFSS-DMADV techniques used during the engine cradle design and development (ii) correlation between the cradle stiffness simulation and test measurement values (iii) cradle NVH test results.
Balakrishnan, P. V., Perumal, J., Salahudeen, A. M., Kannan, J. Sujai
Vehicle Reliability Estimation Model for Concept Vehicle Target Setting and Identification of Critical Parameters Influencing System Reliability2010-32-00689/28/2010
Reliability has been a complicated domain of vehicle engineering, basically due to the quantum of the authentic data required, and variability of parameters that make real contributions to the subject. Reliability of a vehicle in very generic terms, is not only its functional worthiness and consistency, but also its probability to perform satisfactorily within the intended design life for a particular production batch, application domain, operation duty and customer use. Commercial vehicle industry is driven by returns that a vehicle gives, on the investments made, which depend on parameters like minimum turnaround time, lesser breakdowns, optimized maintenance interval and cost of operation etc. Severe operating conditions, regular customer abuse and higher expectations from products (as expected by Indian customer-base) demand a need to deliver more robust and reliable products. Commercial vehicle industry in India finds reliability as one of the most interesting subjects to work-on as it has significant impact on the warranty cost (for manufacturer) and on product uptime (for customer), both being the key parameters that defines, the success of the product. This triggers the need for designers to set targets for reliability at concept phase of vehicle design, which could predict the reliability concerns related to a particular model class for a specific operational duty (load and road). The subject had always been of ambiguity to vehicle designers, basically due to lack or anonymity of data, which could help in estimating reliability and also due to the variability in factors that influence it in one way or the other. Through this paper, an effort has been made to give simple perspective to reliability (from end user stand point) and develop a ‘Vehicle Reliability Estimation Model’ to understand competition reliability performance for specific model class, operational duty and thereby to set concept vehicle target. Focus is on, to conceptualize a reliability estimation model, which could be used to predict reliability of complex automotive systems like small engines, power-trains, steering system, braking system etc. as individual systems and also to apply the same on vehicle as a whole from analytical and holistic standpoint. The input data set is basically collected from logs made on reliability test vehicles, which include competition benchmarks that have been operated under defined design and market usage conditions (road and load). The scope of work involves defining vehicle reliability from end user standpoint, understanding modes of operational failure, analyzing failure data, developing logical inferences from statistical sample set, derivation of critical parameters influencing reliability, estimation of vehicle reliability index followed by target setting for concept vehicle. Vehicle Reliability Estimation Model (VREM) will help the original equipment manufacturers (OEM) in improving customer satisfaction, building brand value, reliability-related cost cut down, reduce campaign recalls by use of a proactive design methodology, predicting reliability related concerns that can be recognized, appreciated and improved at early stages of vehicle and system design.
Belsus, Shaiju M., Sankar, Gopi, Sharma, Amol
Structural Health Management: Systems Design Approach2009-01-323011/10/2009
Structural Health Management (SHM) and its related technologies offer the combined benefits of reducing maintenance costs while maintaining or improving structural design performance. SHM implementation for in-service aerospace platforms requires an approach to quantify how each application can provide benefits. A clear understanding from a benefits perspective provides insight to optimize SHM system design. The focus of this paper will be to describe the key aspects of SHM design from a large scale systems integration perspective. This will be accomplished by a brief overview of SHM from a design and integration perspective, followed by a discussion of SHM derived requirements in the context of example applications. Detailed assessments of a particular application often uncover very stringent requirements to meet existing design, operational performance, qualification, and certification criteria. This paper will discuss a design framework to more quickly understand these requirements and how to best address them by trading technology along with design criteria and possibly criteria change. The design framework will be discussed in the context of example applications, including: 1) considerations for changing inspection intervals based on load and environmental monitoring, 2) design considerations for damage diagnostics and prognostics, and 3) an example of a structural design criteria change that enables condition based maintenance.
Ihn, Jeong-Beom, Davis, Chris, Haugse, Eric
Development of Customer Correlated and Accelerated Driveline Durability Test Cycle2009-01-04124/20/2009
Faster development cycles and longer design lifetimes, are the dominant factors for developing new testing methodologies. Especially durability testing being one of the main fields of interest has to deal with both these aspects. Physical verification of longer design lifetimes yields to longer testing time, whereas a shorter period is required to reduce the development time. The methodology described in this paper addresses these aspects to ensure a fast, customer-correlated driveline testing without loosing the fatigue relevant impact. The fatigue relevant loading of a gear tooth of a rotating gear wheel depends on the applied torque and angular speed. At present, Powertrain aggregates are tested on a rig with block loading cycle derived from designed peak torque. However, these tests neglect the dynamic behavior of the Powertrain system, as the test program does not cover high amplitude cycles from torque reversals. This may lead to underestimated results. Powertrain, as a system, is validated on vehicle level using highway and city endurance tests; typically open loop tests. These traditional methods of testing do not have any correlation with its intended real-time application.
Gosavi, Santosh S, Chavan, Girish A
Competitive Opportunity Management2008-21-003910/20/2008
Competitive Opportunity Management (COM) is a set of innovation-based concepts, tools and processes that provide structure for the comprehensive identification of business opportunities. This structure evolves in a logical, step-by-step manner and is a means of developing a solid foundation for defining the totality of future business opportunities in a context that can be highly leveraged. The culmination of this effort results development of an underlying structure that clearly maps how virtually all business opportunities can and will evolve toward clearly defined long-range trends. COM provides definitive tools at the front end of the generic product development cycle where only vague methods exist today, allows for the sequencing of opportunities and provides a basis for combining discrete elements into new strategies that enable decision making at the top levels of the organization.
Clarke, Dana W., Pine, William C.
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and Pugh Matrix on Innovative Concept Selection: an Application in Automotive Sector2008-36-001710/7/2008
This paper aims to present an application of some quality tools focused on best concept identification process to meet defined customer requirements in activities of process development in an industry of automotive sector. First of all it was done a literature review in order to clear establish the concepts of the following tools: “voice of the customer”, “affinity diagram”, “pair wise comparison”, “quality function deployment (QFD)” and “Pugh matrix”. After it is presented the application of these tools in activities of technology research of advanced engineering department. The first task was to identify all customers related to the process in study. After this, some interviews were scheduled with them and the entire “voice of customer” was collected. With all this information it was used “affinity diagram” to summarize the inputs and used “pair wise comparison” to prioritize customer needs. To translate voice of customer into measurable parameters it was used QFD. The output of this process was a prioritized list of “critical to quality” parameters (CTQ). Finally, to select the best concept it was used “Pugh matrix” evaluating all potential concepts according to CTQ list. According to the results obtained it was possible to conclude that the use of a methodology has changed the way we would follow. This work was related to the technology identification to a process to join metal pieces. Initial idea was to use a certain technology and all team trusted on that. The methodology showed that it does not work and presented a very simpler and cheaper technology that met all customer requirements.
Fernandes, Marcelo Machado, Rosati, Antonio Cesar, Neto, Didimo Garcia, Goto, Frank Kenji, Maciel, Helio, Mologni, Juliano Fujioka
Modeling Design Concepts under Risk and Uncertainty using Parameterized Efficient Sets2008-01-07094/14/2008
Decisions made during conceptual design can have a major impact on the success of a design project. However, the inherently imprecise nature of design is a major source of uncertainty and risk in conceptual design decisions. A single concept relates to a large set of specific design implementations, each of which has a different level of desirability based on the tradeoffs designers are willing to make. It therefore is beneficial for designers to have an understanding of the various tradeoffs they can achieve by implementing a concept. In this paper, we describe an approach to modeling design concepts under uncertainty based on a tradeoff space representation. We use the principles of decision making to develop a useful interpretation of a tradeoff space for decisions under uncertainty and to identify criteria useful for eliminating undesirable tradeoffs from consideration. We illustrate our approach to modeling and decision making on an example for the conceptual design of a gearbox.
Malak, Richard J., Paredis, Christiaan J. J.
Quantitatively Augmented QFD-HOQ2007-01-37058/5/2007
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a process to translate the Voice of the Customer (VOC) into the technical will of the enterprise. QFD is an integral step in the flowdown of customer requirements into the product system, subsystem(s), components and manufacturing processes. The House of Quality (HOQ) is a fundamental element of the QFD process, which provides a framework to relate customer attributes to engineering characteristics at the product architecture level. This paper presents the advantages and limitations of the symbols and weighting schemes used in constructing the relationship matrix in the classical House of Quality of the Quality Function Deployment process. The selection of the weighting scheme for function flowdown during the early design phase impacts the prioritization of engineering characteristics. A simple example using an nxn matrix is provided to illustrate the impact. A methodology is proposed to augment QFD-HOQ with principles used in vector matrix algebra and Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) to enable the selection of the right engineering characteristics.
Jikar, Vivek K., Cudney, Elizabeth A., Smith, Eric D., Ragsdell, Kenneth M., Paryani, Kioumars
Bringing Lab to CAE in Tractor Evaluation With Field Load Data Acquisition2007-26-0531/17/2007
New product development process in tractor industry has immense challenges. Market forces are driving tractor manufacturers, to explore innovative technology, to shorten the product development time. At present, most of the tractor components are evaluated in laboratory, as per customer usage pattern. Even though these lab tests are accelerated, high development time of prototype is a severe constraint. Hence, there is more emphasis on application of Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) for validating the design, in lieu of lab test i.e. ‘Bringing LAB to CAE. There are many challenges to achieve this particularly in tractor evaluation, due to scattered usage patterns, varied field conditions and unexpected customer habits. In addition, fatigue behaviour of tractor chassis, comprising of mainly castings is not only sensitive to design but also to process and assembly. Once the lab to CAE correlation is established within acceptable band, the CAE model is cleared for evaluating the components without lab test, for any future evaluation need. This approach has speeded up the design validation process and there by time to market. The paper describes journey undertaken towards bringing ‘LAB to CAE’ along with benefits.
Narkhede, M., Lale, S., Menon, S., Kamath, P., Shashidhar, D. S., Sajanpawar, P. R.
System Design of a Shape Memory Alloy Actuator for Automotive Tumble Flaps2006-01-342410/16/2006
The continuous advance in mechatronics has long attracted researchers towards the development of new highly integrated actuators for automotive applications. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) offer many favourable characteristics that make this technology very attractive for mechatronic actuators. This paper presents the design, the prototype fabrication and the functional testing of an SMA binary actuator for automotive tumble flaps. The innovative solid-state actuation system is proposed as an alternative to traditional electric or pneumatic effectors used to drive tumble flaps of an air intake manifold for internal combustion engines.
Colli, M., Dragoni, E., Bellato, N.
Practical Application of FMEA and QFD to Improve Product Quality2005-01-397211/22/2005
This article describes a structured approach where Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) are used in combination to improve product quality. Its advantages and drawbacks are investigated. At the end, several recommendations are listed for a successful application of the tools.
Rosa, Ciro Batista
Quality Function Deployment for the Shoulder Section of the Space Suit2005-01-30177/11/2005
Spacesuit shoulder mobility is critical in performing EVA tasks. In addition, risk of failure must be minimized and injuries during operations and training eliminated. The pressure suit design elements that control shoulder mobility interact strongly and in complex ways with many aspects of the pressure suit and system design and are constrained by anthropometric factors. To properly develop the problem statement for the shoulder section in a new suit design that is appropriate for a return to the Moon and eventual exploration of Mars, a Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is under development. QFD is a powerful and widely used method to define your customers, determine their needs, benchmark the competition, and define engineering parameters and targets, that when met, will lead to a successful product. Since many of the requirements for the next generation suit are unknown, the QFD will continually be updated. The engineering parameters, which are tests or measures that must be specified such as range of motion, are critical to develop a successful design. Due to the difficulty and expense of performing these tests, it is challenging to develop an appropriate set of measures. These will be added to the QFD as NASA and its contractors develop them. This paper describes the application of the quality function deployment process to a spacesuit shoulder mobility joint.
Adrezin, Ronald, Zaccaro, Lauren, Hodgson, Edward, Trevino, Robert
Integrating Formula SAE with the Engineering Curriculum2005-01-17964/11/2005
The Formula SAE competition (known as Formula Student in the UK) is well established and continues to be highly popular with engineering students. The annual United Kingdom competition bears witness to this enthusiasm with a strong turnout of a total of 84 teams, including 41 teams from the United Kingdom and 21 other nations represented in 2004. In 2004 some countries, including Japan, Australia and South Korea participated for the first time. There are, for a university, significant implications of resource costs when running the Formula SAE project, mainly financial and time. Time costs in particular are acute with supervision time from university faculty groups and technicians (this latter being particularly intense). This investment needs justification in the light of other demands. In the longer term, the choice appears to be between a purely voluntary activity in which students participate for the experience and their career prospects or a highly regulated activity where all student participation is embedded in the curriculum. We believe that the answer lies between these two extremes of either voluntary or highly regulated activity. The scheme can be integrated within the curriculum while the creation of the right working conditions and provision of working space will facilitate the extra commitment that the project needs. In this paper we will present the results of a research project into the educational aspects of Formula SAE in UK universities including Sussex where we have been exploring different structures to support the Formula SAE project. The research has covered the links between the project and the taught elements of the curriculum, the provision of facilities, the structure of the student team and the support provided by the university.
Wickenden, Paul W., Stobart, Richard K.
Management of Large Axiomatic Design Project2005-01-15264/11/2005
Quality and robustness analysis techniques traditionally were manufacturing skills. Recently quality systems, for example DFSS, are focused on moving the formal quality function to earlier phases in the automotive development cycle. Axiomatic Design is a highly effective framework for achieving quality and reliability goals in the early conceptualization phase, where requirements are analyzed and proposed solutions are synthesized to achieve the requirements.1 As a process, Axiomatic Design can be applied at an individual, group or enterprise level on correspondingly more complex design problems. Larger projects that apply axiomatic design processes have particular needs for a successful implementation. This paper first reviews the case for conceptualization process control such as axiomatic design and then reviews the particular issues that impact a successful axiomatic design deployment over large projects.
Pallaver, Matt
Design Stability2005-01-12074/11/2005
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) is a quality management strategy, which shows promise for manufacturing organizations, which seek to rapidly develop and market high quality, low cost products for hyper-competitive markets. This paper introduces and discusses the concept of design stability, and it's relationship to reliability, durability and warranty cost. The use of this concept at very early stages of product development, even before knowledge of customer preferences, is discussed. The use of the design stability concept as a part of DFSS is suggested as an effective supply chain management strategy.
Ragsdell, K. M.
Tractor Evaluation Through Three Poster Test System2005-26-0441/19/2005
In today’s New Product Development Process, testing and evaluation is a big challenge due to the various factors such as scattered usage pattern, increasing quality and cost conscious buyers and pressure to adhere and squeeze timelines. These necessitate having a comprehensive test program in the laboratory. In Tractor testing, the track and field tests are two most time consuming activities and there is a need to broadly substitute the same with laboratory testing. Conventionally, a Four-poster, which is a full vehicle simulation system, is a widely accepted Laboratory test facility in major automobile industries, for in-house simulation of field and track loads. However, due to involvement of advanced technology, cost of the test system is high. Alternatively, a three-poster test system is a viable customised solution for evaluating tractor in the laboratory with considerable cost advantage. In this paper, an effort is made to explain the concept of this three-poster test system and difficulties encountered during its establishment.
Kamath, Prakash, Menon, Somasundar, Deshpande, Sanjay
Determination of Product Specifications using QFD tool for Seating System2004-28-00501/16/2004
QFD (Quality Function Deployment) is a systematic tool to arrive at product specifications through customer’s voice. This paper presents an overview of making design process more robust and reducing the cost and errors in product design, promotion of teamwork and hence improves customer satisfaction for the Seating System using QFD tool.
Nanda, D.K., Gupta, Vikas, Wadhwa, Anil
Processes for Engineering a SystemEIA632 (Historical)9/1/2003
The purpose of this Standard is to provide an integrated set of fundamental processes to aid a developer in the engineering or reengineering of a system. Use of this Standard is intended to help developers a) establish and evolve a complete and consistent set of requirements that will enable delivery of feasible and cost-effective system solutions; b) satisfy requirements within cost, schedule, and risk constraints; c) provide a system, or any portion of a system, that satisfies stakeholders over the life of the products that make up the system. NOTE—The term product is used in this standard to mean: a physical item, such as a satellite (end product), or any of its component parts (end products); a software item such as a stand-alone application to run within an existing system (end product); or a document such as a plan, or a service such as test, training, or maintenance support, or equipment such as a simulator (enabling products). d) provide for the safe and/or cost-effective disposal or retirement of a system.
G-47 Systems Engineering
Historical Perspective on Vehicle Interior Noise Development2003-01-15185/5/2003
Over the years different methods of vehicle interior noise development have been used by car companies. During my 38 plus years of experience with General Motors' Noise and Vibration Laboratory and Advanced Vehicle Development Center, I have worked with varying methods, and when looking back, these methods have fluctuated between the application of highly subjective analysis and highly objective analysis. Stepped up efforts to reduce overall vehicle engineering design and development time have intensified the use of computer modeling techniques. Iterations of acoustic package content proposals once done experimentally can now be accomplished, to some degree, with computer analysis. To achieve appropriate sound1 character that meets consumer expectations will require both subjective analysis and objective testing and analysis early in a vehicle program.
Repik, Edward P.
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) and Reliability2003-01-13743/3/2003
This article is attempting to address the issues of reliability and design for six sigma. Specifically, it starts out with an overview of the DMAIC model, summarizes the DCOV model which is the prevention model of the six sigma approach and then progressively addresses the issues of reliability. The issues addressed here are: 1) concepts and time categories 2) specific issues of DFSS and reliability 3) characteristics of reliability and DFSS 4) approaches of using reliability 5) concerns about six sigma and 7) consequences and closing remarks.
Stamatis, Diomidis (Dean) H.
Impact of Configuration and Requirements on the Sonic Boom of a Quiet Supersonic Jet2002-01-293011/5/2002
Market forecasts predict a potentially large market for a Quiet Supersonic Business Jet provided that several technical hurdles are overcome prior to fielding such a vehicle. In order to be economically viable, the QSJ must be able to fly at supersonic speeds overland and operate from regional airports in addition to meeting government noise and emission requirements. As a result of these conflicting constraints on the design, the process of selecting a configuration for low sonic boom is a difficult one. Response Surface Methodology along with physics-based analysis tools were used to create an environment in which the sonic boom can be studied as a function of design and mission parameters. Ten disciplinary codes were linked with a sizing and synthesis code by using a commercial wrapper in order to calculate the required responses with the desired level of fidelity. Response Surface Equations were generated and used to create a dynamic environment in which engine, configuration, and mission variables are parametrically varied. This allows the user to evaluate the impact of the chosen variables on figures of merit in real time and to quickly conduct trade studies. Additionally, since these parameters are being considered concurrently, the interactions between the different disciplines have been captured by the analysis.
Buonanno, Michael, Lim, Choongiap, Mavris, Dimitri N.
Where Customer Product Validation Programs Add Value in the New Product Development Cycle2002-21-001210/21/2002
To try and bring together customer needs and product quality within the new product development cycle, Hewlett-Packard’s LaserJet Group has created a program known as Delta. LaserJet Delta is an extension of what is commonly known as a Beta Program but the objectives are changed - the LaserJet Delta program is used to assess product quality, usability, and functionality while manufacturing is beginning production. Beta is commonly done within the product development cycle with the primary purpose to determine what customers like and dislike about the product. First reactions to a program like LaserJet Delta should be it is not the right thing to do. Pre-release testing should be comprehensive enough to catch the issues that are likely to be found in customer testing, allowing an organization to minimize costs associated with expensive last-minute fixes and product reworks. The reality is, printers operate in wide variety of unstable and unpredictable environments and it would be impossible to completely test these products in a competitive time frame and at a competitive cost. The program results shed significant light on why LaserJet Delta is such a compelling program. When program objectives and site selection are done correctly, LaserJet Delta identifies and isolates customer issues quickly, allowing the design teams time to implement fixes before significant volumes of product have entered the marketplace. Early resolution of issues gives the customer support organization time to document and train for responsiveness required on any known issues, thus reducing warranty costs. LaserJet Delta also provides a conduit from design team members to real users that otherwise does not exist. This conduit supplies actionable feedback to the design teams so that eventually the in-house test and evaluation is reshaped to be more comprehensive without being a cost burden. The feedback carries more significance because it is coming straight from the customer.
Hurty, Brett
Quality, QFD and Control Charts: A Managerial Assessment During the Product Development and Production Process2001-01-336510/1/2001
Quality Engineering looks at designing Quality into every product and all the processes. Design is surely the most important phase for Quality both of products and processes. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and Taguchi Methods were both originated in Japan and is claimed as very important for Quality design. They are usually considered synergical for the development of products and processes. Are they good? Productivity improves as the quality of the process moves upwards. The Japanese learned in 1950 that this can be achieved if the process is in control. Economic manufacturing requires quality control and improvement and, consequently, the use of “Quality tools” such as Statistical Process Control, Control Charts, and DOE. The paper will consider show that an incompetent approach to Quality, and to Quality Methods, can do more harm than good.
Galetto, F.
Management of the Product Development Process in the Brazilian Autoparts Industry: Current Practices and Main Problems2001-01-39243/5/2001
This paper presents the results of a survey on the practices, problems, performance and trends in the product development process (PDP) management of the Brazilian autoparts industry. Last decade, this industry underwent a broad process of restructuring following the deregulation of Brazilian economy. In general, there is: a wide dissemination of PDP reference models, but they are partly implemented; application of methods and tools to problem solving, but they are poor integrated; use of development teams to carried out the tasks; integration with automakers; and, there is a lack of PDP performance measurement.
de Toledo, José Carlos, Martins, Manoel Fernando, Martins, Roberto Antonio, Bernasconi, Gilberto C. R., Ferrari, Fernanda Menezes, da Silva, Sérgio Luis, Rozenfeld, Henrique
Competitive positioning, benchmarking and target setting2000-05-02246/12/2000
Automotive product definition involves the use of various tools and techniques to position a new vehicle in a competitive marketplace. The desire of VMs to produce successful products, with high levels of customer appeal, in very short timescales has led to the adoption of more rigorous product definition processes including empathic design, competitor benchmarking and Quality Function Deployment (QFD). These, in combination with a much greater reliance on a predictive engineering methodology, are being utilized to provide a "right first time" approach in the achievement of this goal. The Kano model introduced in the early 1980s emphasizes that, to truly satisfy and delight customers, a product must possess "excitement quality." Empathic design is employed by many VMs to identify product features or attributes that will deliver such qualities. Many VMS use competitor benchmarking methods to understand their competitors'' products, in particular, the mechanisms and technology employed to achieve desirable attributes. QFD is widely used as an effective means of ensuring the customer requirements are considered through the engineering process and reflected in the end product. This paper discusses the application of these tools and techniques in the product definition process and how they are used to position new products in an increasingly competitive market place.
Spall, Terry, Ahn, Yun-Sang
Concepts for Pro-Active Life Cycle Design Support Tools2000-01-15024/26/2000
When categorising the available ecodesign tools according to the methodological design phases and steps, most design for environment tools prove to be analysis oriented and mainly suitable for the final, detailed design phases. This paper emphasises emerging methods allowing the integration of environmental issues earlier in the design process and in a more pro-active way. These methods are based on a context sensitive access to structured guidelines and examples. Finally, the integration of these pro-active tools in a holistic life cycle design system, including also analysis techniques such as life cycle assessment, is shortly described.
Dewulf, Wim, Duflou, Joost, Sas, Paul, Van Brussel, Hendrik
Long-Time Observation: New Aspects for the Development and Analysis of Mechatronic Systems - The Automated Clutch System of the Mercedes A-Class as an Example2000-01-08393/6/2000
An effective development strategy is needed to implement short development times for mechatronic systems, which themselves are becoming increasingly more complex. Besides the ever-increasing use of advanced computer-based development tools, special attention must be paid to the validation of the functional behavior of the prototype during all phases of the development process. Using the example of systems for powertrain automation, this paper depicts the resulting advantages arising from the long-time observation of time-based values of open- and closed-loop controlled systems. The method of long-time observation introduced here is based on the acquisition and analysis of information in all phases of the development process. Where numerous vehicles are already in the hands of selected customers during fleet tests, these late phases in particular are covered thoroughly. It should be noted that newly developed systems are normally unobserved or only subjectively evaluated by the driver. New aspects arise regarding the evaluation of the control system behaviour, its quality and its reliability, as the system is in use in real-word operating conditions over a broad range of different and partially extreme operating conditions, enabling the system designer to reproduce and observe all desired and undesired effects. In particular, hard-to-reproduce effects, such as the detection of sporadic faults in specific operating situations or unpredicted interactions with particular drivers, can be proven with long-time data acquisition and observation strategies. New aspects also arise in the fact that the method introduced here comprises in particular the synchronous/parallel acquisition and analysis of internal and external data of the electronic control system (ECU). The ability to compare ECU-internal and external data is an essential contribution for control strategy optimization and validation, not only for the confirmation of diagnosis functions, but also for the check-up and evaluation of calibration values. An essential prerequisite is an unobtrusive data acquisition system, which can utilize data from vehicle data-buses and other digital interfaces, such as for diagnosis and calibration purposes, as well as from analogue sensors. As the data produced here contains a large amount of real-world elements produced by the customers themselves, it can also be used for investigations under statistical aspects: The elaboration of suited data logistics leads finally to a database, which can be used for a broad range of statistically ensured investigations and analysis tasks. Examples given here include user and load profiles, the driving behavior of specific user groups and the estimation of component characteristics. The chosen method contributes directly to the inclusion of the customer as the driver, demanded, for example, in Quality Function Deployment during customer orientated product development.
Pfund, Thomas, Ludes, Reinhard
Undergraduate Student Design Studies to Enhance RQ-1A Predator Performance1999-01-553110/19/1999
The General Atomics RQ-1A Predator has become an essential tool for battlefield commanders. However, its low maximum speed and poor performance in rain and icing conditions limit its usefulness. In the Spring of 1999, two 10-student sections of the aircraft design class at the United States Air Force Academy studied ways to improve Predator’s usefulness. They determined that small turbine engines, electro-expulsive de-icing systems, and several simple aerodynamic refinements would significantly improve Predator’s capabilities. These results and the methods used to generate them are described.
McFarland, Christopher, McClurg, Jason, McClelland, William, Brandt, Steven A.
TEACHING THE NINE TECHNOLOGIES OF CONCEPTUAL AIRCRAFT DESIGN9855319/28/1998
The aircraft design curriculum at the United States Air Force Academy presents conceptual design in terms of nine fundamental technologies or activities, namely customer focus, design synthesis, engineering drawing and geometry modeling, aerodynamic analysis, constraint analysis, mission analysis, sizing, optimization, and performance and cost reporting. This paper describes these nine activities, explains how they fit together in the conceptual design process, and shows how they are taught and learned at USAFA. Examples of student work show the effectiveness of this approach. This paper also provides an overview of the aircraft design course to our own students.
Crisler, William P., Brandt, Steven A.
The New Ford Aeromax and Louisville Heavy Trucks: A Case Study in Applying Polar Plot Techniques to Vehicle Design95265811/1/1995
One of the major goals in the design of the new Ford Aeromax and Louisville heavy truck product line was to achieve competitive leadership in visibility. Market research found that visibility was an important issue to the heavy truck driver. Visibility is defined as both direct and indirect (i.e., the driver's ability to see with and without the use of supplemental vision devices such as mirrors) and both interior and exterior. The scope of this paper includes the work which was accomplished in evaluating direct and indirect exterior visibility and the resulting vehicle design which achieved Ford's leadership goals. Poor weather visibility and interior vision are beyond the scope of this paper. Polar Plots were the method of choice in the Aeromax/Louisville visibility studies. Industry acceptance of these techniques has been established in the recent approval of SAE J1750, “Evaluating the Truck Driver's Viewing Environment”. Competitive and current product plots were generated based on three dimensional vehicle scan data. This information was used to establish current performance. Typical areas of reduced visibility in heavy vehicle configurations were studied and visibility priorities were determined. Development of the Aeromax and Louisville vehicle architecture was iterated to achieve both the visibility and other vehicle package goals. Mirror location and design were studied once direct visibility was optimized. Polar Plots were successfully used throughout this process to confirm performance.
Francis, Mary Bauer, Parlow, Kathleen, McIsaac, Ellen J.
Improving Disc Brakes94230111/1/1994
Air disc brakes have been under development in Europe now for many years, and have reached the stage where the technical demands of energy capacity, disc and pad life, and general durability are being met. The focus of development in European brakes has now moved more towards the cost of installation and ease of assembly and service, as the technology matures. Achieving reduced costs, while maintaining the technical capability of the product, has led to the use of new methods of integration of design and industrial engineering such as “Design for Assembly” and Quality Function Deployment, which in turn have demanded changes in organisation. This paper discusses the application of these new techniques, and highlights the benefits of their usage.
Thompson, Richard E.
Integrating CAE/CAD/CAM To Improve Information Handling Within The Product Development Process94236311/1/1994
This paper presents the current situation concerning CAE/CAD/CAM integration needs and the appliance of such technologies to support the information handling within enterprises. Also, the reasons to adopt new project management techniques have been considered and the support given to Concurrent Engineering by the use of computer aided technologies have been emphasised. The paper is based on a case study regarding generation and modification of schematic diagrams; thus a system for automatically perform such activities is presented.
Neto, Henrique Benedetto
Development of a Fast Pace Continuous Quality Improvement Culture9408893/1/1994
As we approach the year 2000, it is not going to be possible for automotive suppliers to survive by just improving. The OEM focus during the 80's have forced most suppliers to take action in their companies which has resulted in some quality improvements. However, during the 90's, in order to be world leaders, the supplier must improve at the maximum rate of improvement. Both OEM and supplier companies are not able to do this due to significant barriers and obstacles which must be overcome. The solution is development of a fast pace continuous quality improvement culture. Zexel-Gleason, Inc. encountered barriers such as functional, educational, business as usual, lack of customer driven focus, and personality conflicts. With management's leadership/involvement and pull through employee participation, a fast pace continuous quality improvement culture has evolved. The results (which include a flexible empowered organization where product cost has been reduced by over 40% and where design-proto-test lead time has been reduced by over 300%) have been outstanding. These improvements have clearly been noted by the customers as competitive edge over Zexel-Gleason's competition. In this paper, for the first time, the author will share the lessons learned, during his professional career, to encourage the industry to speed up the rate of improvement and propose his ten ( 10 ) Keys (success factors) which he recommends for successfully implanting a Fast Pace Continuous Quality Improvement Culture.
Gupta, Om P.
QFD - Quality Function Deployment. Concept of Quality for the Development of Products.93164710/1/1993
QFD is an organizational methodology developed for the systematic step-by-step deployment of customers voice in great detail thru all quality fcuntions, providing technical and administrative routines. QFD promotes the conversion of customer desires (= required quality) into quality related characteristics of products, developing the concept quality by the intense support of matrices. In this paper we will discuss the use of the matrices in the first two project-phases (Concept and Design).
Kienitz, Hans O., Sampaio, Paulo S.
Simultaneous Engineering of Automotive Systems - Analytical Techniques9221379/1/1992
A brief explanation of the simultaneous engineering method in the automotive industry is given. Techniques used in the method are discussed. Specific new analytical techniques that assist in this method are listed. Methods of obtaining training in these new techniques are presented.
Dubensky, Robert G.
The Design and Development of the GENESIS Diesel Engine Family9216999/1/1992
A new family of diesel engines was required to power a new mid-sized tractor product line being developed by Ford New Holland. This new family of engines, which are now known as the GENESIS engine family, figure 1, went into production in November 1991. A strategy of large displacement, low RPM, naturally aspirated diesel engines was used to achieve program objectives. The engines are four and six cylinder in-line, direct injected with displacements of 1.1 liter/cyl and 1.25 liter/cyl. Significant improvements were achieved in all aspects of performance, durability, reliability and cost. Simultaneous engineering methodologies were developed early and were key to meeting program objectives. In addition to describing the design detail and performance aspects of the GENESIS engine this paper describes in some detail the simultaneous engineering approach used throughout the development and launch process.
Altermatt, D. S., Croucher, S. R., Shah, V. B.
Creating Customer Satisfaction: A Renewed Challenge for Government Research Laboratories9209734/1/1992
In today's dynamic environment, customer satisfaction is an increasingly important component of the military research program. As familiar as research scientists and technologists (S&T's) are to technical challenges, even the most capable are not immune to the staggering pace of change. S&T's can address these challenges by re-focusing on customer satisfaction, beginning with critical elements such as requirement definition, feasibility, and cost. Methods currently available to help S&T's learn and understand the needs of users are no longer adequate. Expanded metrics, which include user assessment and recognition of research constituencies, are needed to improve estimates of customer satisfaction and better direct laboratory efforts. These expanded metrics can increase the visibility of research contributions. Management initiatives indicate that a shift in the control of research funds, from the laboratory to the user, is underway. Technology transition and oversight processes, integrated weapon system planning, centralized project control, and expanded use of revolving funds tend to decrease the autonomy of individual research directors. However laboratories can create a positive response to turbulent change through creation of strategic alliances with customers and application of standard service marketing techniques. Through these mechanisms, researchers can avoid the pitfalls of shifting control, improve customer relationships, and continue to satisfy user needs.
Peasant, Janet L., Wolfe, Michael D.
Van - The Optimized Industrial Solution for Vehicle Multiplexing (Vehicle Area Network)9202232/1/1992
This paper presents the following VAN concept led by a vehicle analysis: electrical architecture must not be basically changed in order to be cost effective; efficiency, interoperability and safety aspects must be rigorously respected to avoid lack of quality. As a consequence VAN solutions meet the requirement set concerning wiring, transceivers, protocol controllers and software services. Each of these solutions is optimized to assure safety and easy use. VAN transceivers support multiplexed applications - even high speed application - with conventional wiring. VAN controllers offer a large diversity of services, so allow the minimization of network load, of CPU load, with a high Real Time efficiency. Moreover their structure is very open to diagnosis requirements. VAN softwares provide simple, reliable, reusable mechanisms of sharing, exchange and synchronization. Such mechanisms minimize cost development and guarantee safety proofs in the liability context. Looking at the VAN partnerships, the relevance of VAN solutions is proved by the growth of the industrial offer.
Ortis, Murielle, Lacrouts-Cazenave, Ivan
New Generation Small Block V8 Engine9206732/1/1992
This paper describes a totally redesigned new generation 5.7L Small Block V8 Engine. The engine was developed by the General Motors Powertrain Division for use in the Chevrolet Corvette. The paper describes how the Engine Development Team fully succeeded in achieving the elusive goal of “balanced excellence” of various engine attributes. In order to be worthy of the famous LT1 designation from 1970, this engine had to exceed pre-fuel economy and emissions regulation era power and yet equal or exceed current world standards for specific mass, size, fuel consumption, engine out emissions, startability and speed range of usable torque (or torque bandwidth, defined as range of speed over which torque exceeds 90% of peak torque). Compared to 1991, there is a simultaneous increase of over 20% power and over 1 MPG. Also, the torque bandwidth is doubled. The major systems described in this paper consist of the unique reverse flow cooling, lubrication, ignition, power and torque development, noise and vibration, knock and emission control via digital computer, induction, fueling and accessory drive. The paper shows the system reliability growth and compares various V8 engines for engine attributes.
Kulkarni, Anil V.
Developments in Quality and Reliability for Automotive Electronics90114410/1/1990
The automotive electronics industry is facing an incredible challenge in term of growth, functionnality and increasingly severe environment. The Quality is a “must” at consumer level. It will be obtained through design choices such as integration in VLSI (thus decreasing the number of components), evolution of design approaches (C.A.D.) permitting more simulation and by some specific quality approach. These specific points of quality approach are based on common sense which is the nature of the quality methods (all are based on an information/data collection and lead to optimized action). In design, on top of a good customer-needs identification, the automotive electronics supplier will make validations and qualifications based on a comparative approach on all prototype steps. In manufacturing, the results of the unavoidable 100 % testing is to be used as a key feedback factor for internal improvement but also for supplier feedback.
Fayet, Jean
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