Browse Topic: Two or three wheeled vehicles

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Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Modal Behaviour in Electric Two-Wheeler Frames2026-26-03101/16/2026
This research investigates the dynamic characteristics of an electric two-wheeler chassis through a combined experimental and numerical approach. The study commences with the development of a detailed CAD model, which serves as the basis for Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to predict the chassis's natural frequencies and mode shapes. These numerical simulations offer initial insights into the structural vibration behaviour crucial for ensuring vehicle stability and rider comfort. To validate the FEA predictions, experimental modal analysis is performed on a physical prototype of the electric two-wheeler chassis using impact hammer excitation. Multiple response measurements are acquired via accelerometers, and the resulting data is processed to extract experimental modal parameters. The correlation between the simulated and experimental mode shapes is quantitatively assessed using the Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC). This matrix provides a measure of the consistency and similarity between
Das Sharma, Aritrya, Iyer, Siddharth, Prasad, Sathish, Anandh, Sudheep
Pre-crash characteristics of Motorised Two Wheelers in Indian Crashes2026-26-00341/16/2026
Motorized two-wheelers (M2Ws) represent the most affected road users in India, account for 45% of all fatalities in road crashes as per government data. Despite this, most research has focused on injury outcomes rather than the events leading up to these crashes. This study addresses the gap by analyzing pre-crash characteristics of M2W incidents using the Road Accident Sampling System-India (RASSI) database, which provides in-depth, scientifically collected crash data from across India. RASSI data was analysed to identify the pre-crash characteristics of M2W crashes such as the road structure, crash configurations, vehicle speeds, and specifically behavioural characteristics of M2W riders. A total of 3862 M2W samples were analysed over the period of 2011-2022 that represent 51,00,211 M2Ws nationally. The results show that although M2Ws have highest involvement in side/angle (‘T-bone’) crashes, Head-on crashes are the most severe crashes for M2Ws with 22% fatalities. The results also
Govardhan, Rohan, Padmanaban, Jeya, Jethwa, Vaishnav
An In-Depth Exploration of the Evolution and Global Adoption of Electric Motors in New Energy Vehicles2026-26-01611/16/2026
In recent years, the global automotive sector has undergone a transformation at an unprecedented pace, driven by rapid technological advancements and evolving consumer expectations. Central to this shift has been the accelerated adoption of electric motors as the primary propulsion mechanism in New Energy Vehicles (NEVs). This research paper explores the technological trajectory of electric motor development across four vehicle segments: two-wheelers, three-wheelers, passenger vehicles, and heavy-duty commercial vehicles. It identifies the leading electric motor technologies utilized in each of these segments, along with their prevalence across key regulated global markets. Drawing upon historical data and existing academic literature, the paper provides a comprehensive overview of current e-motor technologies and their market distribution. A regional analysis is conducted to examine variations in manufacturer preferences and deployment strategies, supported by visual representations
SINGH, ASHISH, Ray, Rakesh Kumar
A systematic debugging methodology for identifying electric vehicle level EMC issues2026-26-05251/16/2026
Electric two and three-wheelers present unique challenges in electromagnetic compatibility testing due to compact packaging, high-frequency switching, and low shielding practices. This paper presents a systematic debugging methodology for identifying and mitigating radiated emission and radiated immunity issues in these EV platforms. A comprehensive approach is outlined, covering radiated emission measurement, Bulk Current Injection based immunity simulation, and near-field probing techniques. For RI evaluation, BCI testing in the 20 MHz to 400 MHz range is used to simulate radiated threats on the vehicle's power and signal harnesses. For RE diagnosis, conducted emission measurements on vehicle harnesses are performed using current probes to capture high-frequency currents. Additionally, near-field electric probes are used at the component to identify dominant noise sources such as DC-DC converters, Motor control unit, and improperly grounded shielding. Case studies on 2W and 3W EVs
M, Gokul, Patel, Jinay, Mulay, Abhijit B
Measurement of Acoustic Sensitivity of Automotive Drum Brake to Multiple Faults2026-26-05551/16/2026
Multiple faults can occur over time in drum brakes, which are commonly used on the rear of heavy vehicles and two-wheelers, compromising passenger safety and ergonomics. Given the recent success of artificial intelligence in fault diagnosis, it can be applied effectively to automotive brakes during operation when combined with advanced measurement techniques. However, monitoring the brake health during operation is challenging due to the rotational motion of components and space constraints for sensors. Consequently, this study investigates the use of measured radiated noise from drum brakes (instead of vibrations) to detect faults. A test bench mimicking typical on-road braking dynamics has been developed to operate in a controlled environment with pre-determined fault levels. This setup measures acoustic signals during transient brake events. Acoustic responses from several experiments that imitate three common brake fault conditions are measured. The acoustic sensitivity to each
Shripad, Kumar Milind Rewanand, Yella, Akash, Sundar, Sriram
Comparative Study of EV Transmission Performance used in Various Vehicle Segments2026-26-05841/16/2026
The transition to electric mobility has accelerated the evolution of drivetrain technologies, particularly in the design and performance of electric vehicle (EV) transmissions. Unlike traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs utilize simpler yet diverse transmission systems cater to specific performance, efficiency, and application requirements. The growing adoption of electric vehicles across diverse transportation sectors has intensified the need for optimized electric transmission systems as per vehicle requirements. This research presents a comparative study of electric transmission performance across various vehicle segments, including Passenger Cars, Small commercial Vehicle, Commercial three-wheelers and All-terrain vehicles. The study evaluates different transmission configurations namely single-speed and multi-speed, based on key performance metrics such as Drag loss and Efficiency. Through a combination of literature review, and performance benchmarking, the
Jain, Sankalp, P, EKHESH
A Frequency-Based correlation adjustment method for translating Proving Ground Test Tracks to 4-DOF Road Simulator Rig Testing of Electric Two wheelers2026-26-05561/16/2026
Real-world usage subjects two-wheelers to complex and varying dynamic loads, necessitating early-stage durability validation to ensure robust product development. Conducting a full life-cycle durability testing on proving grounds is time-consuming, extremely difficult for the riders involved, and costly, which is why accelerated testing using rigs such as the road simulator system have become a preferred approach. The use of road simulators necessitates, accurately measured inputs and precise simulation to ensure proper actuation of the rig, thereby enabling realistic representation of road undulations. Road Load Data Acquisition (RLDA) is used to measure various inputs such as displacement, acceleration, strain, and predicted forces from the road which are then used to simulate real-world conditions in a road simulator. This paper covers two important aspects essential for achieving an accurate and clear representation of road simulation in a 4-DOF road simulator, encompassing both
Ganju, Shubham, V, Vijayamirtharaj, Prasad, Sathish, R S, Mahenthran
CS Structure: New generation metallic catalyst substrate for 2- and 3-Wheeler applications2026-26-02201/16/2026
Affordable, efficient and durable catalytic converters for the two and three-wheeler industry in developing countries are required to reduce vehicle emissions and to maintain them at a low level; and therefore to participate in a cleaner and healthier environment. Especially, Metallic catalyst substrates from Emitec Technologies GmbH with structured foils like the Longitudinal StructureTM (LS) are fully compatible to this effort with more than 90% share of produced 2/3 Wheelers metallic catalyst substrates for the Indian customers in 2024. One decade after the market introduction of this LS structure, Emitec Technologies GmbH will introduce now a new generation of foil structure: the Crossversal StructureTM (CS) that improves further the affordability, the efficiency of metallic catalytic converters, keeping the durability at same level than previous substrate generation. The paper will briefly review the development of metallic substrates for 2/3 wheelers applications, especially the
Jayat, Francois
Real-time Helmet Detection and Closed-Loop Enforcement System for Two-Wheelers2026-26-06501/16/2026
Need: In India, two-wheelers account for a significant portion of road traffic and contribute heavily to the national burden of road fatalities. Despite regulatory mandates, helmet non-compliance remains widespread due to limited enforcement reach and behavioral inertia. Currently there is no intelligent system that enforces helmet usage autonomously in a closed loop directly at the vehicle level. Motivation: The existing enforcement strategies such as traffic policing or external camera-based surveillance are reactive, infrastructure-dependent, and ineffective at scale. To overcome these limitations, we propose a real-time helmet detection and closed-loop system that is integrated into the two-wheeler itself. This approach promotes proactive safety compliance without relying on external monitoring infrastructure. Methodology: The proposed model is AI-powered, vision-based system that leverages deep learning techniques for helmet detection, supported by a custom-built dataset
Kandimalla, Om Mahalakshmi, Shah, Ravindra, Karle, Ujjwala
Developments in 2-Wheeler electric vehicle architecture2026-26-01991/16/2026
Electric vehicles are becoming more popular due to the low-cost investment for individual daily usage, such as traveling to nearby places, offices, and schools. There are environmental benefits that make them green and produce less pollution compared to traditional vehicles. Two-wheeler electric vehicles (EVs) have more electronic components compared to two-wheeler internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. The major components in two-wheeler EVs are the motor and battery. The traction motor is driven by the battery, Battery is a primary energy source in 2Wheeler electric vehicle. An electric vehicle comprises different major electronic components such as the battery management system (BMS), motor control unit (MCU), human-machine interface (HMI), and, in some cases, a vehicle control unit (VCU) as well. Considering a 48V architecture or less than 60V provides advantages of low system cost as it requires less effort for safety measures. Furthermore, this paper explores diverse
Karunakar, Praveen, K R, Amogh
To study and compare communication protocol for fast charging in electric two-wheeler with respect to CCS 2.0: An Indian Perspective2026-26-01981/16/2026
India, as the world’s largest two-wheeler market, is witnessing an aggressive transition towards electric mobility, driven by urban air quality concerns, fuel cost sensitivity, and government incentives. Among the critical enablers of this shift is the availability of robust and efficient fast charging infrastructure tailored to electric two-wheelers. This paper proposes a systematic testing framework for fast charging of electric two-wheelers, addressing key parameters such as battery thermal management, charging communication protocols, safety interlocks, and State of Charge (SOC) estimation accuracy. The study evaluates current and emerging standards, including AIS-156, IS 17017, and IEC 61851, and identifies gaps specific to two-wheeler applications such as compact form factor constraints, lower energy storage, and high operational turnover in fleet usage. A special focus is placed on interoperability, user safety, and infrastructure scalability for dense urban environments. The
Uthaman, Sreekumar, Mulay, Abhijit B
A Two-Step Approach for Tire Lateral Force Observation for Motorcycles2024-32-00434/18/2025
This study presents a two-step method for estimating motorcycle tire lateral forces, which are critical to the safety of driver assistance systems. In the pre-filtering stage, a partial attitude of the motorcycle is estimated using a Kalman filter and a kinematic model. In the observation stage, the side slip angle and subsequently the tire lateral forces are provided by a sliding mode observer. It extends previous research by incorporating both out-of-plane and in-plane dynamics. The paper also proposes an approach for selecting the Kalman filter parameters. An approach to identify the stochastic sensor errors of the inertial measurement unit is presented. The identified parameters are used as a basis for the selection of the covariances. The overall study provides a practical implementation strategy and demonstrates its applicability in real-world scenarios. The experiments show the results of the lateral force estimation and its relation to the friction ellipse. The effectiveness of
Winkler, Alexander, Grabmair, Gernot, Reger, Johann
Fatigue Analysis of Motorcycle Rear Swing Arm on Different Road Surfaces2024-32-00464/18/2025
The rear swing arm, a crucial motorcycle component, connects the frame and wheel, absorbing the vehicle’s load and various road impacts. Over time, these forces can damage the swing arm, highlighting the need for robust design to ensure safety. Identifying potential vulnerabilities through simulation reduces the risk of failure during the design phase. This study performs a detailed fatigue analysis of the swing arm across different road conditions. Data for this research were collected from real-vehicle experiments and simulation analyses, ensuring accuracy by comparing against actual performance. Following CNS 15819-5 standards, road surfaces such as poorly maintained, bumpy, and uneven roads were tested. Using Motion View, a comprehensive multi-body dynamic model was created for thorough fatigue analysis. The results identified the most stress-prone areas on the swing arm, with maximum stress recorded at 109.6N on poorly maintained roads, 218.3N on bumpy surfaces, and 104.8N on
Chiou, Yi-Hau, Hwang, Hsiu-Ying, Huang, Liang-Yu
RDE Methodology Development for Motorcycle Emissions Assessment2024-32-00734/18/2025
The transfer of conditions and regulations for RDE testing from passenger cars to motorcycles is a non-trivial undertaking. Motorcycles exhibit significant differences in construction and usage compared to cars, necessitating a distinct set of requirements for equipment and methodology. Currently available PEMS are hindered by their relatively large size and weight due to the embedded measurement technology and external power supply. The weight of, at least 50kg, poses a substantial additional load, leading to a deviation and, on average, higher load collective of the engine during RDE measurement rides. Beyond these structural parameters, the actual propulsion system and subsequent exhaust system introduce another challenge when employing PEMS on motorcycles. An unfavorable combination of the ratio of engine displacement to the volume of the exhaust system and long or unequal ignition intervals leads to pulsations, which has a considerable impact on the differential pressure-based
Schurl, Sebastian, Keller, Stefan, Lankau, Mathias, Hafenmayer, Christian, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Traction Voltage Level in Two-Wheelers: Considerations on Safety and Performance2024-32-00624/18/2025
Most electric 2-wheelers on the market today seek to replace combustion engine vehicles from 50cc to 150cc which equates to an electric motor power between 2 and 12 kW. The traction voltage level of these vehicles is mostly between 44V and 96V. However, the actual choice of voltage on a specific vehicle seems to be arbitrary and higher voltage does not necessarily correlate with higher motor power. This paper seeks to highlight considerations and tradeoffs which feed the choice of traction voltage levels. Important criteria are electrical safety standards and their impact on vehicle electrical architecture, the performance and availability of key electronics parts such as capacitors, MOSFETs, and gate drivers, while also highlighting functional safety aspects. This paper shows by a comprehensive analysis of the motor drive that for the vehicle class mentioned above the traction voltage level can be kept below 60V without any performance impact, while also ensuring electrical and
Schmitt, Stefan
Virtual Calibration Approach to the Development of Control Systems and Strategies for Hybrid L-Category Vehicles2024-32-00664/18/2025
Hybrid powertrain for motorcycles has not been widely adopted to date but has recently shown significant increased interest and it is believed to have great potential for fuel economy containment in real driving conditions. Moreover, this technology is suitable for the expected new legislations, reduced emissions and enables riding in Zero Emissions Zones, so towards a more carbon neutral society while still guaranteeing “motorcycle passion” for the product [1, 2]. Several simulation tools and methods are available for the concept phase of the hybrid system design, allowing definition of the hybrid components and the basic hybrid strategies, but they are not able to properly represent the real on-road behaviour of the hybrid vehicle and its specific control system, making the fine tuning and validation work very difficult. Motorcycle riders are used to expect instant significant torque delivery on their demand, that is not properly represented in legislative cycles (e.g. WMTC); rider
Antoniutti, Christian, Sweet, David, Hounsham, Sandra
Novel Statistical Modelling-Based Approach for Exhaust Mass Flow Calculation in Motorcycles2024-32-00724/18/2025
The exhaust mass flow measurement for motorcycles poses a unique challenge due to presence of pulsations arising from an unfavorable combination of the engine displacement-to-exhaust system volume ratio and the long or even unequal ignition intervals. This pulsation phenomenon significantly impacts the accuracy of the differential pressure-based measurement method commonly employed in on-board measurement systems for passenger cars. This paper introduces an alternative approach calculating exhaust mass flow in motorcycles, focusing on statistical modelling based on engine parameters. The problem at hand is rooted in the adverse effects of pulsations on the differential pressure-based measurement method used in the EFM. The unfavorable combination of engine characteristics specific to motorcycles necessitates a novel approach. Our proposed alternative involves utilizing readily available OBD parameters, namely engine speed and calculated engine load as there is mostly no data for intake
Schurl, Sebastian, Sturm, Stefan, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Analysis of Lane Departure Caused by Inadequate Motorcycle Driving Maneuvers Due to Road Alignment2024-32-00344/18/2025
There are many riders who drive motorcycles on winding mountain roads and caused single motorcycle traffic accidents on curved roads by lane departure. Driving a motorcycle requires subtle balancing and maneuvering. In this study, in order to clarify the influence of lane departure caused by inadequate driving maneuvers against road alignment, the authors analyzed the required curve initial operation and driving maneuvers in curves depending on the traveling speed using a kinematics simulation for motorcycle dynamics. In addition, it was analyzed how inadequate driving maneuvers for curved roads can easily cause lane departure. As a result, it shows that the steering maneuvers and the lean of motorcycle body during the curves are highly affected by the vehicle speed, and the required maneuvers increases rapidly with increasing speed. The inadequate maneuver in the curves, especially for the lean of motorcycle body and steering torque, even by 10%, may cause failure to follow the
Kuniyuki, Hiroshi, Takechi, So
A Power Split eCVT Hybrid for Sustainable Urban Mobility2024-32-00294/18/2025
The main drivers for powertrain electrification of two-wheelers, motorcycles and ATVs are increasingly stringent emission and noise limitations as well as the upcoming demand for carbon neutrality. Two-wheeler applications face significantly different constraints, such as packaging and mass targets, limited charging infrastructure in urban areas and demanding cost targets. Battery electric two wheelers are the optimal choice for transient city driving with limited range requirements. Hybridization provides considerable advantages and extended operation limits. Beside efficiency improvement, silent and zero emission modes with solutions allowing fully electric driving, combined boosting enhances performance and transient response. In general, there are two different two-wheeler base categories for hybrid powertrains: motorcycles featuring frame-integrated internal combustion engine (ICE) and transmission units, coupled with secondary drives via chain or belt; and scooters equipped with
Schoeffmann, W., Fuckar, G., Hubmann, C., Gruber, M.
Development of Higher Clarity Injection Molded Windscreen for Motorcycles2024-32-00404/18/2025
The windscreen is one of the key elements to enhance passenger comfort of touring motorcycle. The clarity through the windscreen should not discomfort the rider. The discomfort we discuss here mainly refers to three factors: the “distortion,” the “blur,” and the “transparency.” Introduced in this paper is the technical measures to achieve sufficient clarity by the injection molding method. Firstly, with respect to the “distortion,” we determined the main cause was local unevenness of plate thickness. As the uneven thickness were related to the accuracy of the die, we clarified the tolerable zone and carried out higher precision machining of the die to satisfy the requirements. Regarding the “blur,” we analyzed the refractive power of the windscreen and found the main cause of blur is the microscopic roughness on the surface. As the microscopic roughness were attributable to the die surface, we clarified the tolerable zone and established the polishing conditions satisfactory for the
Yamada, Atsushi, Endo, Sakae
Analysis of the Effect of Combination Frame Flexibility on Weave Modes2024-32-00494/18/2025
The weave mode of a motorcycle is known to be affected by the flexibility of the vehicle frame. The weave mode has been shown to be more unstable in the 10-DOF model than in the 4-DOF model. However, it is not clear why the weave mode would be unstable, given the six different frame flexibilities. In this study, the authors analyzed the stability of the weave mode in a 4-DOF model when the same was integrated with two types of frame flexibilities. In the vehicle specifications used in the analysis, the combination of the bending flexibility of the front forks and the torsional flexibility of the main frame destabilizes the weave mode. The analysis results show that the phase delay of the front tire lateral force is caused by the phase delay of the steering angle. The combined bending flexibility of the front forks and the torsional flexibility of the main frame results in a large phase lag in the steering angle.
Haraoka, Reiya, Katayama, Tsuyoshi, Yoshino, Takahiko
Vehicle-Integrated Camera Based Rider Helmet Detection & Warning System2024-26-00091/16/2024
Non-usage of helmets does not cause accidents but are critical for averting fatal and grievous injuries in the event of road occurrence accidents. A report by Transport Ministry says, during 2021, a total of 46,593 persons were killed due to non-wearing of helmet, of which 32,877(70.6%) persons were drivers and 13,716 (29.4%) were passengers. Currently, traffic police use the helmet detection solution on surveillance videos to identify the vehicle number plate who’s not wearing helmets to issue challans. But on the vehicle side it is not yet implemented. At present, vehicles are neither equipped to issue warnings nor there are any safety measures taken to minimize the risk, when rider is not wearing the helmet. This paper suggests a passive safety system for two wheelers that uses an integrated camera to detect if rider is wearing a helmet or not by utilizing image processing techniques. Based on the result, if helmet is not detected, then the vehicle will issue warnings and limit
Kishor, Kaushal, Tarte, Malay, Joshi, Umita
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) analysis for e-motors and controllers of electric two-wheelers.2024-26-00981/16/2024
The Indian government has been promoting electric vehicles through various policy initiatives, such as offering incentives and subsidies to EV manufacturers and consumers, establishing charging infrastructure across the country, and setting ambitious targets for EV adoption. These measures aim to reduce the dependence on imported fossil fuels, mitigate air pollution, and promote sustainable mobility. As a result, the demand for electric vehicles across India is steadily increasing, and the country is emerging as a lucrative market for EVs globally. An electronically commuted brushless DC (BLDC) motor usually functions for traction in electric 2-wheelers. Electric vehicles need to comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements. During the EMC compliance of electric two-wheelers, it is certain that the BLDC motor and its controller play an important role. This paper presents the BLDC motor and controller’s Radiated Immunity (RI) and Radiated Emission (RE) performance at
Pawar, Sneha Ravindra, Desai, Manoj Madhukar
Testing and evaluation of Integrated Starter Generator system’s performance and durability characteristics in rig level using automation.2024-26-03691/16/2024
Automobiles are incorporated with advanced technologies to improve riding experience, safety, and vehicle management. Considering riding experience, major concern prevails in starting and charging system. For quick start and stop, implemented Integrated Starter Generator (ISG) in two wheelers. ISG system consists of ISG machine and ISG controller. ISG machine acts as motor during cranking and generator during charging, controlled by ISG controller. Automation kit is made with help of real sensors, actuators, and microcontroller to monitor and log the performance characteristics of ISG system during testing in rig level. Sensors continuously monitors the performance parameters and once the parameters not meeting the specification, actuators stop the testing and rise the indication. All tested data stored in cloud and taken for analysis. This automation kit served two purposes. One is eliminated test running on the failure sample for full long testing duration. Second is from logged data
K, Vishali, Patil, Pratik, Kumaran, Adm V
Noise reduction on electric two wheeler by structural modification and gear design optimization2024-26-02151/16/2024
The low running cost of electric two wheelers is resulting in high popularity and growing market share. The electric two wheelers are generally considered silent. However, the tonal nature of radiated noise is annoying for both driver and pedestrians in electric vehicles. This study focuses on electric two wheeler with annoyance issue. The customer complained about non-linear noise with respect to speed and also whining during loading and coasting. The detailed Noise Source Identification (NSI) revealed that the noise is due to motor whine and structural resonances of chassis excited by this motor excitation during runup and gear whine orders during coasting when excitation by motor is absent. The motor mounting and chassis are structurally modified with suitable vibration isolators based on the results of modal analysis. The transmission gear geometry and contact pattern are optimized for transmission error reduction. The modification resulted in 6-8 dB overall noise reduction with
Chivate, Shriniwas Dilip, Gaikwad, Atul Annasaheb, Taware, Ganesh Nanasaheb
Differentiating of Fatigue Durability by Cyclic Loading and Induced Vibration in Structural Components2024-26-03191/16/2024
In the automotive industry two wheeler vehicles are having a huge presence and running in all over the region. Two wheeler vehicles are running in very different terrain conditions and exposed to various input loads from the road. These loads are directly stressing the structure of the product and also additional stresses are generated due to the induced vibration of aggregate components mounted on the same location. Stress on the component will be generated by both of these loads, direct structural deflection and vibrations induced to its structural aggregate components. While we consider to simulate these loads at the component level, a single test methodology is not feasible to capture both modes of loads. Differentiating these loads and stresses from the structural components also required different analysis methods. The paper focuses on discussing measurement and analysis technique requirements to identify stresses from direct structural deflection loads and loads due to aggregate
Anandh, Sudheep, Balakrishnan, Sivakumar, Prasad, Sathish
Effect of tire pressure on the fatigue life of an automotive three-wheeled vehicle's chassis & body.2024-26-03651/16/2024
The need and dependency on objective measurements are increasing rapidly across all industries for reliable and faster data for product validation, and the automotive industry is no different. Objective measurements are becoming increasingly popular than subjective evaluation as they offer objectivity and repeatability. Typical industry practice for structural validation is to acquire the vehicle responses, viz. spindle accelerations, wheel displacements, wheel forces, speed, strain at a few critical locations, and others as per the requirement. Vehicle responses are usually acquired on specific road surfaces, test tracks, and proving grounds. Prior to the tests or measurements, the vehicles are configured as per the company's recommendation, such as tire pressure, camber angles, engine oil, coolant oil type and quantity, load, and load distribution, to name a few. The test vehicles with which these measurements are carried are usually only with these vehicle settings. However, the
Polisetti, Sagar
Simulation driven design for Connected and Safety system of Two-Wheeler Electric vehicle.2024-26-03791/16/2024
Wireless communication technology is playing an increasingly important role in enhancing the safety of vehicles. Wireless communication enables vehicles to establish connections and exchange information with other vehicles, System, Sensor, infrastructure, and external systems. This connectivity forms the foundation for various safety-enhancing applications and systems. In this paper We used simulation methods to build the Bluetooth antenna, the TPMS antenna, and fall detection of two-wheeler by the use of the IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) for the improved communication and two-wheeler rider safety. we are designing Bluetooth Antenna for Two-wheeler which follows the standards of ISM band. The design of a Bluetooth antenna is a critical aspect of wireless communication systems, particularly for applications involving short-range communication. This paper's objective is to create a successful Bluetooth antenna Simulation for a two-wheeler. TPMS has become critical component in modern
Shekhar, Apurva, Gumma, Muralidhar, Bellary, Anudeep
A Multistage adaptive charging algorithm for Li-Ion battery-based EV Applications2024-26-01031/16/2024
With the increase of electric vehicles and lack of standardization in charging infrastructure, the variance in the charger cable length, battery health, and battery capacity can result in unevenness in the charging of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), which increases the charging time and can deteriorate the battery’s health. Enabling adaptive charging of LIBs can accelerate the commercial application of electric vehicles (EVs). Charging of LIBs is critical and can be optimized to curtail the effective charging time. In this paper, a multistage adaptive charging strategy is presented for LIB-based EV applications to boost the SOC of the battery system in the shortest time. In the proposed charging strategy, initially, multiple pre-charge CC stages are employed to bring the battery out of the deep discharge state and to simultaneously calculate the resistances of the harness (line resistance), and the battery. These resistance values are then used to estimate the charging currents as the
RAJAWAT, SHIV PRATAP, Moorthi, Sathiya, Soni, Lokesh
Vehicle Dynamics Simulation Correlation : Impact of Flexible Tyre and Flexible Frame in Comfort Prediction of Two Wheelers Motorcycles and Scooters2024-26-00531/16/2024
For any two wheeler vehicle development, rider and pillion comfort while driving the vehicles over different kinds of road perturbations holds high importance. Designing a vehicle for comfort starts at the very beginning of its layout definition through vehicle geometric parameters, key hardpoints, mass-inertia distribution of subsystems and suspension characteristics. There is a need for highly reliable simulation models for comfort predictions as any change in layout during subsequent design stages is a very costly affair. Accurately predicting comfort using a full vehicle model is a challenging task though as it depends on how realistic the Simulation Model is to that of actual vehicle. While suspension stiffness and damping characteristics remain critical parameters for the comfort, selection of tyres are known to hold equal importance in vehicle comfort. The details to which the tyres are captured in the simulation model and the formulation of tyre interaction with roads in a
Govindula, Srikanth, Pandey, Pradyumn, Saraswat, Udit, Mishra, Ashish
Development of Duty Cycle for Transmission System Components in a Two-Wheeled Electric Vehicle2024-26-03181/16/2024
A two-wheeler is exposed to various dynamic loads transferred from roads and input given by the vehicle prime mover, which leads to the occurrence of torque on the wheel and transmission. The torque generated depends on the terrain and riding pattern of users, so it becomes important to develop a duty cycle of transmission considering multiple events enabling us to understand the durability standard of the component designed. The tests performed were on an EV two-wheeler that uses a belt drive transmission. The paper will focus on the following aspects, which cover the customization of the torque cell for the pulley system in the transmission, followed by the testing on different selected terrain conditions and analysis methodology for generating the duty cycle for different systems in transmission of the vehicle. A customized torque cell using strain gauges was developed with locations identified from finite element analysis performed on the wheel pulley. Strain gauge locations are
Ganju, Shubham, R S, Mahenthran, Prasad, Sathish Kumar, Balakrishnan, Sivakumar
Effects on Motorcycle Dynamics Data Using Wheel Force Transducer Systems2025-01-00945/5/2023
Wheel Force Transducers (WFT) are precise and accurate measurement devices that seamlessly integrate into any vehicle. They can be applied in numerous vehicle applications for both on-road and in laboratory settings. The instrumentation requires replacing an OEM wheel with a custom WFT system which is specific to the wheel hub design. An ideal design will minimally impact a vehicle's dynamics, but the vehicle system is inherently modified to some extent from the weight of the measurement device. Research and technical documentation have been published which provide conclusions that reducing the unsprung mass reduces dynamic wheel load. However, there doesn’t appear to be clear compensation techniques for how a modified unsprung mass can be related to the original system, thus allowing the WFT signals to be more accurate to the OEM wheel forces. An experimental study was performed on a prototype motorcycle to better understand these differences. An instrumented “impact bump” acting as a
Frisco, Jacob, Rhudy, Scott, Larsen, William, Oosting, Nicholas
Vibration refinement of two wheeler sub chassis and aesthetic parts due to engine unbalanced excitation forces2025-01-01135/5/2023
Two wheelers are important and essential transportation mode in India. Designing a motorcycle with better riding comfort and minimal vibration are thus a major challenge for engineers now a day. Engine and road excitations are two sources of vibration acting on motor bike or scooter. These vibrations are transmitted to chassis, sub chassis, aesthetic parts and then to the rider and pillion. Unwanted vibrations will create discomfort to the rider/pillion as well as produces noises and hence needs to be minimized. This study is focused on diagnosis and control of output vibration responses of sub chassis/aesthetic parts due to engine unbalanced excitation forces. There are numerous parameters of motor bike/ scooter that govern the vibration responses of sub chassis/ aesthetic parts. Engine unbalanced inertia force characteristics and their transmission to rider and pillion has been studied and reported here. Environmental benefits demands for a complete NVH refinement for lesser
khare, saharash
Design approach on magnetic speed reduction of bikes while turning2022-28-048011/18/2022
Turning two-wheelers (bikes) are, at times, risky and often disturbs the stability of the vehicle. The primary causes are excessive speed, severe acceleration, and over tilting. This work intends in making aid for a safer ride and improves turn ability. With the introduction of automatic speed reducers, the vehicle would be subjected to magnetic braking while making a turn. A Motion stabilizer (like Gimbals) is modeled in CATIA and fabricated using PVC material. This fabricated stabilizer is placed in the vehicle setup in between the arms which carry the magnet. Braking action is done automatically as the magnet gets closer to the rim while turning the setup. Three modes of operations such as test (i) under no load, no angle, (ii) under magnetic load at zero angles, and (iii) under magnetic load, at an angle on both lateral directions, have been tested. A spectrum analyzer has been used, which records the frequency correspondingly to the speed is calculated. The counterbalancing weight
S, Ragul
Integrated Battery and Traction Cooling Based on Reversed Brayton Refrigeration Cycle for High Speed Performance Bikes.2022-28-041611/9/2022
Recent advancement and compact design requirements in the field of two wheeler Electric vehicle has resulted for the requirement of cooling system for high performance bikes. It has also been observed that heating requirement are dominant at higher speed, because of higher power consumption and thus cooling is required for high speed EV bikes. This paper represents an integrated motor and battery cooling system taking advantages of freely available air. Air collector will be installed in the direction of the vehicle motion to collect available ram air, the collected ram air will be divided into two parts, one part will be directed to motor and MCU for direct air cooling and the second part will be used for battery cooling. Second part will be made to pass through a drier to make air moisture free, the dry air is then made to pass through compressor where it is isentropically compressed to higher pressure. Then this compressed air will be intercooled to initial atmospheric temperature
Jha, Navneet Kumar
Performance Analysis of Integrated Battery and Traction Motor Cooling Systems for Two-Wheeler Electric Vehicles Applications2022-28-041311/9/2022
The automotive industry is a huge industry as millions of vehicles are running on the road & it's growing at a rapid rate. The emission from these vehicles are harmful in nature & are bigger concerns for the human being as its increasing day by day at an alarming rate. The emissions are causing various global problems such as global warming, green house effects, air pollutions etc. due to the use of fossil fuels in abundance. This drives to think for alternative solutions, which are eco-friendly & having less or no emissions. The electric vehicles (EVs) are the most reliable solution as it is having high performance & efficiency without emissions. EVs are most suitable option to reduce global warming & greenhouse effects etc. The evolution of EVs has fueled the two-wheeler EVs industry to flourish at a fast pace. Li-ion battery & traction motor is the most important components in two-wheeler EVs. Li-ion batteries are compact, light-weight, fast-chargeable, having low self-discharge
Suman, Saurabh, Kushwah, Yogendra Singh
Component Sizing of Electric Vehicles: A Programming Approach2022-01-508510/6/2022
The rising demand for battery electric vehicles has resulted in market saturation in terms of various start-ups, and established automakers are also introducing new models every year. The automakers have to put a lot of effort into sizing powertrain components optimally to get the best performance and efficiency. This paper proposes a programming approach for estimating the preliminary component sizing based on analytical equations regarding electric motor power rating and battery-pack energy capacity. Estimating tractive force for various vehicle performance goals dictates the motor power rating. The battery sizing for lead-acid and Li-ion batteries is proposed based on the empirical relationship between vehicle curb weight and battery-pack weight and the energy consumption approach. The validation and verification of the program based on output accuracy and user experience are presented.
Pednekar, Nihar, Patil, Satyajit
Positional Accuracy of Portable GPS Devices during Different Ride Stages2022-01-09923/29/2022
GPS devices can produce a wealth of data about cyclists’, scooterists’, and other riders’ road paths and route usage. However, prior research has demonstrated that GPS positional accuracy is less reliable for more nuanced roadway positioning, such as which lane a vehicle occupies, as well as within-lane movements, such as acceleration and deceleration⁠. This limitation presents a substantial challenge for crash reconstructionists that may have access to GPS data and require second-by-second positional accuracy to determine such nuanced maneuvers and vehicle positioning in their analysis. The purpose of this study was to examine the positional accuracy of several GPS units during three different ride stages: acceleration, deceleration, and constant speed. The same devices were also tested for stationary accuracy, power cut-off, and simulated impact scenarios. To obtain precise data from GPS units, tests were performed with an electric scooter ridden in rural landscapes with clear skies
Desai, Elvis, Suway, Jeff, Engleman, Krystina, Vega, Henry
Model Based Evaluation of Parallel Hybrid Concepts for a Scooter for Reduced Fuel Consumption and Emissions2022-01-08083/29/2022
IC engines are most efficient when they operate steadily in specific zones which cannot be attained in real driving conditions. Hybrids tackle this issue and improve drivetrain efficiency. Though they are used in cars and commercial vehicles they do not find application in small two wheelers especially scooters which constitute the majority of the market in several Asian Countries. The reasons are cost of implementation and need to have a suitable design. Integrating an electric motor with a conventional scooter drivetrain while retaining the base engine and the CVT is a cost effective proposition which is the motivation behind this work. Such a development will need accounting for the behavior of the belt driven CVT. In this paper a comparison between two parallel hybrid layouts has been made with the base 110cc scooter powertrain. A map based engine model and a physics based CVT model were developed and validated to simulate the base drive-train on the WMTC drive-cycle. A rule based
Mathivanan, Arulkumaran, Elango, Pradeev, Kakani, Raghav, Das, Himadri B, Ramesh, A
Decelerations of Capsized Motorcycles – An Update2022-01-09963/29/2022
Many motorcycle crashes involve the motorcycle capsizing and sliding on the road surface. Often, when performing speed calculations, the reconstructionist will need to calculate the energy or speed loss for the capsizing and sliding phase. To perform these calculations, the reconstructionist would determine the slide distance based on the physical evidence, and then a range of decelerations for the slide would be selected from physical tests reported in the literature for motorcycles with similar characteristics sliding on similar surfaces. This approach is adequate in many instances but sometimes results in a wide range due to the variability in reported decelerations in prior studies. It could be helpful to narrow the range of decelerations that need to be used. However, most of the past studies described their tests with inadequate detail to parse out precisely what factors were most influential in the producing the reported decelerations. The present study reports additional
Rose, Nathan, Carter, Neal, Palmer, Jacob, Walter, Kevin, Smith, Connor
Aerodynamic drag and downforce of a sport motorcycle 2022-01-10733/29/2022
The aerodynamic drag and lift of a sport-motorcycle was investigated in a full-scale and in a 1/6th scale wind tunnel tests. The results show the large vertical load transfer to the rear wheel as vehicle’s speed increases. Consequently, several simple dive and splitter-plates were tested to increase the aerodynamic downforce. These devices were added at a relatively low position on the bodywork in order to avoid adverse handling effects while leaning in turns. This study shows the level of downforce that can be generated by simple add-ons without major alterations to the bodywork. Consequently, for higher levels of aerodynamic downforce, larger underbody surfaces or wings are needed.
Katz, Joseph
An Approach to Aggregate Finalization of Traction Motors and Controllers for 2 Wheeler Electric Vehicles.2022-01-08753/29/2022
Electric two wheelers are fast growing segments in electric vehicles and the selection of Powertrain systems play key role in finalization of Vehicle design. The electric motor and controller are keeping its own design features which relates to vehicle performance.. In this paper, Motor and controller’s specification calculation with respect to the various scenario of Vehicle drive points have been investigated. Different drive point of Even and uneven roads, Hill climbing and down hills case results are discussed. The mathematical calculations and results are compared with Vehicle requirements. Key words – Electric Vehicle, Two wheeler, Motors, Controller and Vehicle drive cycle.
Neelakandan, Varatharaj, B, Prabakaran
Assessment of the Dynamics of Electric Scooter Micro-Mobility Devices and the Kinematics and Behaviors of Riders2022-01-10303/29/2022
Given the widespread adoption of electric scooters as a micro-mobility vehicle, and the subsequent emergence of electric scooter (e-scooter) accident reconstruction and human factors analyses in forensic investigations, there is a pressing need for additional research quantifying the dynamic capabilities of e-scooters and characterization of the responses and behaviors of e-scooter riders. The present study aims to expand upon the limited literature currently available by presenting data from experiments using large sample size and a wide array of e-scooter models. An assessment of the dynamic performance of e-scooters in semi-naturalistic environments and observations of the kinematics and behavioral characteristics of e-scooter riders were performed with four experiments: 1) Measuring the dynamics of four different instrumented e-scooters through a semi-naturalistic driving course conducted by volunteer participants, 2) performing a cross-sectional observational study of rider
Tibavinsky, Ivan Andres, FIGUEROA, Rosemarie
Automatic Alert System to enable safe ride and to prevent accidents in Two Wheelers and Three Wheelers2021-28-023310/1/2021
In Midway, accidents are general in nature on the highways. Vehicles meeting the accidents are not saved in a faster way for the rescue. This system operates the signal from the seat belt sensor, during the operation of the vehicle. An Electronic Control Unit (ECU) has been deployed to provide the information about the passenger mobile phone contacts and the nearest safety officer with respect to the Global Positioning System installed in the vehicle. The signal from the seat belt fastening system for the driver and the front seat passenger is indicating the dearer contacts and the health of the centers for the rapid recovery of the vehicle met with an accident. This ECU also monitors the health condition of the passengers for the safety ride with respect to the pressure and the temperature of the cabin to make the passenger a safe ride. 20 sensors are deployed in the seat belt and the signals from these sensors are fed into an electronic control unit for further processing. The
B, Prabakaran, Chinni, Venkata Sai Sandeep, Chitta, Phani Kumar
Methodology & Experimental study to reduce steering effort and improve directional stability in 3 wheeler vehicle2021-28-016410/1/2021
Abstract With an intense competitive automotive environment, it becomes imperative for any OEM to launch their products into the market in a short span of time & with a 'First Time Right' approach. Within the current scenario in the Automotive Industry, the selection of optimum set of hard points and wheel geometry often becomes an iterative or a trial and error process which is both time consuming and involves higher development cost as there may be instances where 2 to 3 sets of iterations are needed before specification is finalized for production. Through this paper, an attempt has been made to develop a methodology for deciding wheel geometry parameters (covered in the later section of this paper like Caster, Camber, Mechanical trail, etc.) for a three wheeled vehicle as a First Time Right (FTR) approach to cut down on conventional, expensive & time-consuming iterative approach. In this paper, we have studied the parameters which affects the directional stability and steering
Khanna, Nitin
Regeneration of waste energy from tire strain and rapid charging through super-capacitor for electric vehicles2021-28-027810/1/2021
Vehicle tyres lead us to move miles and miles, which faces a lot of heat and stresses all that energy should not go in vain, Peizoelectric materials are materials which have the ability to convert the applied mechanical stress into electrical charge. Our work deals with the conversion of heat and stress of the tyre into an electrical energy by using piezoelectric transducer, rapid collection and storage of electric energy using super-capacitor. For this experimental study, electric bike was taken and its tyres was replaced by regenerative tyre, which is made of two tyres mounted in the same rim inbetween them piezoelectric transducer was placed, its also called as piezoelectric sandwich tyre structure. In the order of 4 columns and 40 rows in the circumference of the inner tyre at about 320 PZT (lead zirconate titanate) for both tyres. The PZT has greater stability and higher operating temperature. In which 4 columns are connected in series and 40 rows are connected in parallel to the
R, Soundararajan, S, PRADEEP, Raj.N, Naveen, C, Pradeep
Rider State Monitoring for Attentiveness Detection for Enhanced Two-wheeler Safety2021-26-00239/22/2021
Statistics report that one death occurs on Indian roads every three and a half minutes. With discussions on regulating new safety technologies like ABS, ESC, Advanced Rider Assistance Systems (ARAS) etc. for two-wheelers in India, the automotive industry has been grappling with challenges, in terms of developing cost-effective and innovative solutions adapted to regional market and its customers. Also, regulations that mandate the use of rider assistive technologies not only present opportunities to improve road safety, but also challenges for safe adoption and implementation. Distracted and inattentive riding is one of the major causes for severe road accidents in two-wheeler segments . The causes of distraction can be many - but the foremost one - as indicated by the accident data analysis - is the distraction due to mobile phones. Additionally, distracted riding might interfere with safe activation of ARAS functionalities that feature highly dynamic interventions, as the rider is
UdayaShankar, Ashrith, Damodharan, Suchitra, Notani, Vipul, Gopinath, Anjana, Aravind, V, Y P, Nithin, Rao, Aditya
Virtual tuning and optimization of two wheeler suspension through MBD simulations2021-26-03489/22/2021
The design and tuning of stiffness and damping parameters of the suspension system is an essential step in arriving at the optimal riding comfort for a two wheeler. The conventional method of suspension design involves selecting baseline values of suspension parameters through bench-marking of similar vehicles, followed by extensive real life tests to tune these parameters over different load, speed and track conditions. This conventional approach is often time consuming and heavily dependent on physical prototypes of suspension. With the advent of tools to run optimization on Multi-Body Dynamic (MBD) simulations, a near complete tuning of suspension parameters can be performed entirely in the simulation domain. This paper presents an integrated approach towards the design and tuning of suspension stiffness and damping parameters using MBD simulations, by employing fully parameterized suspension stiffness and damping curves in the optimization process. The optimization is performed on
PK, Ram Kumar, Mishra, Ashish
Mitigation of Engine Sub-system Noise in Two Wheeler Using Crank Angle Domain Analysis2021-26-03069/22/2021
One of the main objective of manufacturer is to achieve high productivity with low cost while increasing the customer satisfaction. With increased competition in the automotive sector the product quality is defined not only from fuel economy and durability perspective but also Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH), which plays a vital role in attracting the customers. In two wheeler, engine is dominant noise source and its quality improvement is utmost priority. Now a days, several signal processing and sensing techniques are developed for noise source identification of an engine but precise source identification can be achieved only by advanced analysis technique. This paper focuses on a procedure for noise source identification from engine sub-system viz. valve operation and its generation mechanism using crank angle domain analysis in two wheeler engine. Baseline noise measurements were carried out for critical frequency identification. Further, vibro-acoustic measurements were
Jagdale, Yogeshwar Pundlik, Askhedkar, Amlesh, Arimboor, Kuriyan
Methodology & Experimental study to reduce Steering effort and improve Directional stability in a Three Wheeled vehicle2021-26-00839/22/2021
With an intense competitive automotive environment, it becomes imperative for any OEM to launch their products into the market in a short span of time & with a 'First Time Right' approach. Within the current scenario in the Automotive Industry, the selection of optimum set of hard points and wheel geometry often becomes an iterative or a trial and error process which is both time consuming and involves higher development cost as there may be instances where 2 to 3 sets of iterations are needed before specification is finalized for production. Through this paper, an attempt has been made to develop a methodology for deciding wheel geometry parameters (covered in the later section of this paper like Caster, Camber, Mechanical trail, etc.) for a three wheeled vehicle as a First Time Right (FTR) approach to cut down on conventional, expensive & time-consuming iterative approach. In this paper, we have studied the parameters which affects the directional stability and steering effort using
Khanna, Nitin
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