Adaptive cruise control (ACC) is an enhancement of conventional cruise control systems that allows the ACC-equipped vehicle to follow a forward vehicle at a pre-selected time gap, up to a driver selected speed, by controlling the engine, power train, and/or service brakes. This SAE Standard focuses on specifying the minimum requirements for ACC system operating characteristics and elements of the user interface. This document applies to original equipment and aftermarket ACC systems for passenger vehicles (including motorcycles). This document does not apply to heavy vehicles (GVWR > 10,000 lbs. or 4,536 kg). Furthermore, this document does not address other variations on ACC, such as “stop & go” ACC, that can bring the equipped vehicle to a stop and reaccelerate. Future revisions of this document should consider enhanced versions of ACC, as well as the integration of ACC with Forward Vehicle Collision Warning Systems (FVCWS).

Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) Committee

Improving Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking

2021-01-126510/11/2021

Abstract: Most new vehicles sold in 2018 (56%) had, as either a standard or optional feature, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) equipped with Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB). However, current testing protocols implemented by safety organizations and programs, such as Euro NCAP, NCAP, and IIHS largely do not evaluate the performance of PAEB in dark conditions without streetlights. This is true despite data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Association (NHTSA) showing that more pedestrian fatalities occur in dark conditions without streetlights than in daylight conditions. Additionally, independent tests conducted by NHTSA and the American Automobile Association (AAA) reveal that, in every scenario considered, PAEB systems frequently fail to protect pedestrians in dark conditions. Within this context, to encourage improvement in PAEB performance and increase nighttime pedestrian safety, this paper includes the following sections: 1. A proposal for the

Naikal, Nikhil

Test and Evaluation of Autonomy for Air Platforms

21AERP08_0808/01/2021

Tools, approaches, and insights to confidently approach the safe, secure, effective, and efficient testing of autonomy on air platforms. Air Force Test Center, Edwards Air Force Base, California The 2018 National Defense Strategy emphasizes that the effective implementation of autonomy is essential for future engagements. Key to this implementation is the ability to test and evaluate systems that perform autonomous tasks. The purpose of this research is to equip testers with tools, approaches, and insights to confidently approach the testing of autonomy on air platforms. The air domain is chosen specifically for its applicability to the Air Force mission and to help scope the focus of this research. The intent is not to be an exhaustive reference for testing and evaluating autonomy; rather, the goal is to provide a launching point for greater investigation. Testing autonomy on airborne platforms brings unique challenges and, therefore, to be successful, testing should leverage the

Heavy Vehicle Event Data Recorder (HVEDR)

J2728_202011 (Current)

11/30/2020

This document provides nomenclature and references to related documents for heavy vehicle event data recorders (HVEDR) for heavy-duty (HD) ground wheeled vehicles. The SAE J2728 series of documents consists of the following:

Truck and Bus Event Data Recorder Committee

Switch-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) Emissions Filtering: Attenuation vs. Leakage Trade-Off

TBMG-3806111/01/2020

The AC/DC power converter is often the sole interface between a piece of equipment and a building’s electrical installation, which is in turn connected to any number of other off-line systems. It is also the element separating the hazardous high voltage mains from user-facing safety extra low voltage (SELV) networks. Accordingly, AC/DC power converters fall under a great deal of regulatory scrutiny, with mandates ranging from energy efficiency to safety to electromagnetic immunity and emissions. The requirements of each regulatory authority can often spawn contradictions in the resulting engineered solutions.

When Every Second Counts … Important Considerations for Respiratory Ventilator Design

TBMG-3759209/01/2020

Today, more than ever before, “never fail” operation of emergency and critical care equipment is a need, not an option. Devices such as ventilators provide life-maintaining oxygen, and the recent pandemic has increased demand for these devices. Ventilators are mission-critical to sustaining life and require a robust design to ensure they maintain the necessary up-time for patient care.

Air Brake Performance and Wear Test Code Commercial Vehicle Inertia Dynamometer

J2115_202008 (Current)

08/20/2020

This SAE Standard provides test procedures for air and air-over-hydraulic disc or drum brakes used for on-highway commercial vehicles over 4536 kg (10000 pounds) GVWR. This recommended practice includes the pass/fail criteria of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. TP-121D-01.

Truck and Bus Foundation Brake Committee

Air Brake Performance and Wear Test Code Commercial Vehicle Inertia Dynamometer

J2115_202008-TEST-REC (Historical)08/20/2020

Truck and Bus Foundation Brake Committee

Unsettled Issues Facing Automated Vehicles and Insurance

EPR202001508/05/2020

This SAE EDGE™ Research Report explores how the deployment of automated vehicles (AVs) will affect the insurance industry and the principles of liability that underly the structure of insurance in the US. As we trade human drivers for suites of sensors and computers, who (or what) is responsible when there is a crash? The owner of the vehicle? The automaker that built it? The programmer that wrote the code?Insurers have over 100 years of experience and data covering human drivers, but with only a few years’ worth of information on AVs – how can they properly predict the true risks associated with their deployment? Without an understanding of the nature and risks of AVs, how can the government agencies that regulate the insurance industry provide proper oversight? Do the challenges AVs present require a total reworking of our insurance and liability systems, or can our current structures be adapted to fit them with minor modifications?{"bold":"Unsettled Legal Issues Facing Automated

Williams, Ian

Selecting Electrical Safety Relay Modules for Optimal Performance

TBMG-3744308/01/2020

Designers of industrial automated machinery and equipment must follow regulations and standards to ensure they are delivering safe electrical designs; however, there have been cases where uncertainty about the standards has led to overly cautious and costly designs. Or in the worst cases, safety design has been compromised by concerns regarding excessive complexity and cost.

Updating the Grade Severity Rating System (GSRS) for Wyoming Mountain Passes: A Description of Tests and Results

02-13-01-0005-TEST-REC05/13/2020

Truck crashes on Wyoming mountain passes due to brake heating has been a long-standing issue due to the steep downgrades that characterize some routes in the state. The grade severity rating system (GSRS) developed by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to recommend maximum safe speeds has been identified as a viable countermeasure to reducing the incidence of downgrade truck crashes. However, several decades have passed since the GSRS was developed. In the decades since its development, truck features have undergone radical changes in terms of design. The streamlined design of tractors and trailers, use of drag reduction devices, changes in engine features, and adoption of radial tires have led to a reduction in the non-brake forces that retard motion. Truck brakes have also changed along with retarder characteristics. This has meant that maximum safe speeds recommended by the GSRS have been conservative. This article discusses tests and results involved in updating the GSRS

Moomen, Milhan, Ksaibati, Khaled

Updating the Grade Severity Rating System (GSRS) for Wyoming Mountain Passes: A Description of Tests and Results

02-13-01-0005

05/13/2020

Moomen, Milhan, Ksaibati, Khaled

SAE best practice establishes definitions for ODD

20AUTP05_0805/01/2020

The Automated Vehicle Safety Consortium (AVSC), an industry program of SAE Industry Technologies Consortia (SAE ITC), released a new best practice in April 2020 developed for automated driving systems (ADS) developers and manufacturers responsible for defining their ADS Operational Design Domain (ODD). The Best Practice for Describing an Operational Design Domain: Conceptual Framework and Lexicon document establishes common terms and a framework in which to apply them. Where applicable, labels, definitions and measurement ranges are provided to promote consistent communication and to help ensure that users' ADS expectations are aligned with capabilities.

Shuttleworth, Jennifer

Model-Based Design of Service-Oriented Architectures for Reliable Dynamic Reconfiguration

2020-01-136404/14/2020

Service-oriented architectures (SOAs) are well-established solutions in the IT industry. Their use in the automotive domain is still on the way. Up to now, the automotive domain has taken advantage of service-oriented architectures only in the area of infotainment and not for systems with hard real-time requirements. However, applying SOA to such systems has just started but is missing suitable design and verification methodologies. In this context, we target to include the notion of model-based design to address fail-operational systems. As a result, a model-based approach for the development of fail-operational systems based on dynamic reconfiguration using a service-oriented architecture is illustrated. For the evaluation, we consider an example function of an automatically controlled braking system and analyze the reconfiguration time when the function fails. The reconfiguration time, together with the worst-case execution time (WCET), was determined by a model-based calculation

Oszwald, Florian, Obergfell, Philipp, Liu, Bo, Pazmino Betancourt, Victor, Becker, Juergen

Assessment of Collision Markings on Non-Used Vehicle Seat Belt Restraint Systems

2020-01-097504/14/2020

Forensic investigators of automobile collisions are commonly tasked with determining whether physical evidence observed on restraint systems is consistent with the occupant’s use or non-use of the seat belt restraint. The characteristics of collision-induced markings generated on seat belt systems are not solely dependent on the belted status of the occupant, but also the technological features incorporated in the seat belt assembly. As the state-of-the-art for seat belt assemblies has changed over time, so has the constellation of physical evidence typically created on seat belt restraint systems. Pretensioner deployment can leave physical evidence on restraint system hardware in the absence of occupant loading. This study presents examples of physical evidence collected from seat belt systems involved in real-world collisions, which were initially alleged to affirm proper belt use, but were ultimately proven to be evidence of non-use. Several laboratory demonstrations were conducted

Gregg, Richard H., Petroskey, Karla J.

Computation of Safety Architecture for Electric Power Steering System and Compliance with ISO 26262

2020-01-064904/14/2020

Nowadays and with the advancement of the automotive industry, functional safety has become one of the most significant challenges for autonomous and connected vehicles. The automotive industry is transforming from conventional driving technology where the driver or the human being is a part of the control loop to fully autonomous development and self-driving mode. The SAE levels of autonomy define level 4 by (These automated driving features will not require you to take over driving). Thus, more and more safety-related electronically controlled units ECUs are deployed in the control module of the vehicle. As a result, more complexity of system architecture, software, and hardware are interacting and interfacing which increases the risk of both systematic and random hardware failures. In order to reduce these risks and avoid any potential failure or loss of control, ISO 26262 was introduced and developed to guide the automotive original equipment manufacturer OEMs and suppliers to

Salih, Saif, Olawoyin, Richard

Calculating Vehicle Side Structure Stiffness from Crash Test Data: Effects of Impactor Characteristics

2020-01-064004/14/2020

This research examines the effects of impactor characteristics on the calculated structural stiffness parameters A and B for the struck sides of late-model vehicles. Such studies were made possible by the fact that for the 2018 model year, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration conducted New Car Assessment Program side impacts (with known DOT numbers) on 29 vehicles using both a rigid pole and a moving deformable barrier (MDB). In all, a total of 60 side impacts with known DOT numbers were identified for analysis. However, due to various deficiencies A and B were calculable for 47 of these, which meant that there were only 21 2018 vehicles for which A and B could be compared between the two types of tests. Structural behaviors of two of these vehicles were judged to be outliers, and were thus excluded from further analysis. Classifying the 19 remaining vehicles according to the categories defined by Siddall and Day, only Class 2 multipurpose vehicles (MPVs) were represented

Struble, Donald E., Struble, John D.

Heavy Vehicles Kinematics of Automatic Emergency Braking Test Track Scenarios

2020-01-099504/14/2020

This paper presents the test track scenario design and analysis used to estimate the performances of heavy vehicles equipped with forward collision warning and automatic emergency braking systems in rear-end crash scenarios. The first part of this design and analysis study was to develop parameters for brake inputs in test track scenarios simulating a driver that has insufficiently applied the brakes to avoid a rear-end collision. In the second part of this study, the deceleration limits imposed by heavy vehicles mechanics and brake systems are used to estimate automatic emergency braking performance benefits with respect to minimum stopping distance requirements set by Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards. The results of this study were used to complete the test track procedures and show that all heavy vehicles meeting regulatory stopping distance requirements have the braking capacity to demonstrate rear-end crash avoidance improvements in the developed tests.

Salaani, M. Kamel, Elsasser, Devin, Boday, Christopher

Multi-objective Restraint System Robust and Reliability Design Optimization with Advanced Data Analytics

2020-01-074304/14/2020

Vehicle restraint system design optimization is important for occupant protection and achieving high score in NCAP rating of five-Star. The target is to minimize the Relative Risk Score (RRS), defined by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NTHSA)'s New Car Assessment Program (NCAP). The design input includes restraint feature options (e.g., some specific features on/off) as discrete design variables, as well as continuous restraint design variables, such as airbag firing time, airbag vent size, inflator power level, etc. The optimization problem is constrained by injury criteria involve HIC, chest deflection/acceleration, neck tension/compression, etc., which ensures the vehicle meeting or exceeding all Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No. 208 requirements. Considering the local variability of input variables such as manufacturing tolerances, the robustness and reliability of nominal designs were also taken into account in optimization process. Genetic

Li, Guosong, Xue, Zhendan, Pline, Kevin, Gao, Zhenyan

Biomechanics of Passenger Vehicle Underride: An Analysis of IIHS Crash Test Data

2020-01-052504/14/2020

Occupant dynamics during passenger vehicle underride has not been extensively evaluated. The present study examined the occupant data from IIHS rear underride crash tests. A total of 35 crash tests were evaluated. The tests were classified as full-width (n = 9), 50% overlap (n = 11), and 30% overlap (n = 15). A 2010 Chevrolet Malibu impacted the rear underride guard of a stationary trailer at 35 mph. Several occupant kinematics and dynamics data including head accelerations, head injury criteria, neck shear and axial forces, neck moments, neck indices, chest acceleration, chest displacement, chest viscous criterion, sternum deflection rate, and left/right femur forces/impulses, knee displacements, tibia axial forces, upper/lower tibia moments, upper/lower tibia indices, and foot accelerations were measured. The vehicle accelerations, delta-Vs, and occupant compartment intrusions were also evaluated. The results indicated that the head and neck injury parameters were positively

Atarod, Mohammad

Scalable Simulation Environment for Adaptive Cruise Controller Development

2020-01-135904/14/2020

In the development of an Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system, a model-based design process uses a simulation environment with models for sensor data, sensor fusion, ACC, and vehicle dynamics. Previous work has sought to control the dynamics between two vehicles both in simulation and empirical testing environments. This paper outlines a new modular simulation framework for full model- based design integration to iteratively design ACC systems. The simulation framework uses physics-based vehicle models to test ACC systems in three ways. The first two are Model-in-the-Loop (MIL) testing, using scripted scenarios or Driver-in-the-Loop (DIL) control of a target vehicle. The third testing method uses collected test data replayed as inputs to the simulation to additionally test sensor fusion algorithms. The simulation framework uses 3D visualization of the vehicles and implements mathematical driver comfortability models to better understand the perspectives of the driver or passenger. The

Barnes, David, Folden, Jared, Yoon, Hwan-Sik, Puzinauskas, Paulius

Factors Affecting Child Injury Risk in Motor-Vehicle Crashes

2019-22-000803/31/2020

Current recommendations for restraining child occupants are based on biomechanical testing and data from national and international field studies primarily conducted prior to 2011. We hypothesized that analysis to identify factors associated with pediatric injury in motor-vehicle crashes using a national database of more recent police-reported crashes in the United States involving children under age 13 where type of child restraint system (CRS) is recorded would support previous recommendations. Weighted data were extracted from the National Automotive Sampling System General Estimates System (NASS-GES) for crash years 2010 to 2015. Injury outcomes were grouped as CO (possible and no injury) or KAB (killed, incapacitating injury, non-incapacitating injury). Restraint was characterized as optimal, suboptimal, or unrestrained based on current best practice recommendations. Analysis used survey methods to identify factors associated with injury. Factors with significant effect on

Benedetti, Marco, Klinich, Kathleen D., Manary, Miriam A., Flannagan, Carol A. C.

Assessment of Several THOR Thoracic Injury Criteria based on a New Post Mortem Human Subject Test Series and Recommendations

2019-22-001203/31/2020

Several studies, available in the literature, were conducted to establish the most relevant criterion for predicting the thoracic injury risk on the THOR dummy. The criteria, such as the maximum deflection or a combination of parameters including the difference between the chest right and left deflections, were all developed based on given samples of Post Mortem Human Subject (PMHS). However, they were not validated against independent data and they are not always consistent with the observations from field data analysis. For this reason, 8 additional PMHS and matching THOR tests were carried out to assess the ability of the criteria to predict risks. Accident investigations showed that a reduction of the belt loads reduces the risk of rib fractures. Two configurations with different levels of force limitation were therefore chosen. A configuration representing an average European vehicle was chosen as a reference. It consists of a 3-point belt with a 3.5 kN and then 2 kN digressive

Trosseille, Xavier, Petit, Philippe, Uriot, Jérôme, Potier, Pascal, Baudrit, Pascal

Evaluation of the Injury Risks of Truck Occupants Involved in a Crash as a Result of Errant Truck Platoons

09-08-01-000103/11/2020

Truck platooning comprises a number of trucks equipped with automated lateral and longitudinal vehicle control technology, which allows them to move in tight formation with short following distances. This study is an initial step toward developing an understanding of the occupant injury risks associated with the multiple sequential impacts between truck platoons and roadside safety barriers, regardless of whether the crash is associated with a malfunction of automated control or human operation. Full-scale crash impacts of a tractor-trailer platoon into a concrete bridge guardrail were simulated for a specific Test Level condition according to the Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH) standards. The model of the bridge barrier was developed based on its drawings, and material properties were assigned according to literature data. The impact simulation of the first impact was validated against a full-scale crash test conducted by the Midwest Roadside Safety Facility (MwRSF) based

Jin, Hanxiang, Sharma, Roshan, Meng, Yunzhu, Untaroiu, Alexandrina, Doerzaph, Zachary, Dobrovolny, Chiara Silvestri, Untaroiu, Costin Daniel

Research on Forward Collision Warning System and Fuzzy Control of Automatic Emergency Braking System

2020-01-503302/24/2020

The automatic emergency braking (AEB) system and forward collision warning (FCW) system are significant for active safety systems. It can efficiently reduce the rear-end accidents and protect the drivers and pedestrians. The model of an E-class SUV is established with CarSim software, and the control strategy based on fuzzy control is developed with MATLAB/Simulink. Simulation analysis on several typical braking conditions is carded out. The experiment results agree with the analysis results, which indicates that the research method can satisfy the safety requirements of automatic emergency braking system and the accuracy requirement of forward collision warning system.

Lei, Zhang, Qin, Shi

The Principles of Operation Framework: A Comprehensive Classification Concept for Automated Driving Functions

12-03-01-000302/18/2020

The levels of sustained vehicle automation, as recently updated by SAE in J3016 (status: 06/2018), have become common knowledge. They facilitate overall understanding of the issue. Sustained automation describes the shift in workload from purely human-driven vehicles to full automation. Duties of the driver are assigned to the machine as automation levels rise. Yet sustained driving automation does not cover “automated driving” as a whole. Automated driving functions operating on a nonsustained basis cannot be classified by means of levels describing continuous automation. Emergency braking, e.g., is obviously an intensive, but discontinuous, automation of a single task. It cannot be classified under the regime of sustained automation. The resulting lack of visibility of these important functions cannot satisfy - especially in the light of effect they take on traffic safety. Therefore, in order to reach a full picture of automated driving, this article proposes a comprehensive approach

Shi, Elisabeth, Gasser, Tom Michael, Seeck, Andre, Auerswald, Rico

SAE TOMORROW TODAY: I Count Progress in Lives Saved

1288402/11/2020

Zoox is driving autonomously in ways that no one else has shown. The company's approach makes Chief Safety Innovation Officer Mark R. Rosekind, Ph.D., the perfect inaugural guest for SAE Tomorrow Today. Host Grayson Brulte sits down with Mark at SAE's Government/Industry Meeting to discuss Mark's unique background as a scientist studying sleep at NASA and at NHTSA, and how those experiences shaped his efforts at Zoox.

Hineman, Marcie

Footrest Design to Reduce Lower Leg Injury in Frontal Crashes

2019-36-009001/13/2020

The frontal impact is the most common vehicle crash type in accidents involving cars. During a vehicle frontal impact, the injuries are caused by occupant body moving forward and impacting the vehicle interior parts. The performance of the vehicle body and the interior parts design may influence on the occupant injury levels. Injuries in the occupant lower body are usually affected by the vehicle lower body deformation and the design of the interior lower parts (lower instrument panel, pedals, floor and footrest). When the purpose is to reduce the injury of a specific body region, the modification of the interior part design can be more effective in terms of impacts in mass, costs and development time than a modification in the vehicle body. The objective of the study was to develop a new footrest design to reduce the injury level of the left driver leg in a frontal crash condition. It was also evaluated the influence of the vehicle body deformation on the driver leg injury. There were

Kimura, Tsuguo Eduardo, Rossi, Gilvan Prada, de Freitas, Paulus Hanser

Good Design Controls Are Critical to Avoiding FDA Issues

TBMG-3578301/01/2020

Medical device companies recognize that having an emphasis on design controls helps to assure good design and engineering practices that yield high-quality solutions. This is critical when considering FDA validation and design compliance. But to accomplish this, first know what key elements should be incorporated in design controls before implementing formalized plans for their creation.

The Navigator

20AVEP01_0201/01/2020

After years of heavy lobbying from the cable and wireless industry, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is on the verge of reallocating most of the spectrum that had been set aside for intelligent transportation systems including vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications. While various automakers have been vocal in their support of V2X, the industry as a whole has only itself to blame for this development. The FCC first allocated 75 MHz of spectrum in the 5.9-GHz band for ITS (intelligent transportation systems) use 20 years ago. But precious little has been done with that spectrum since then, as other uses of wireless technology have been gobbling up the airwaves. For years, many automakers, suppliers and regulators worked to develop standards for V2X communications and large-scale pilot programs continue to operate in a number of cities including Ann Arbor, Mich., and Tampa, Fla.

Unsettled Domains Concerning Autonomous System Validation and Verification Processes

EPR2019012

12/30/2019

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the Department of Transportation’s (DOT’s) National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) face similar challenges regarding the regulation of autonomous systems powered by artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms that replace the human factor in the decision-making process. Validation and verification (V&V) processes contribute to implementation of correct system requirements and the development life cycle - starting with the definition of regulatory, marketing, operational, performance, and safety requirements. The V&V process is one of the steps of a development life cycle starting with the definition of regulatory, marketing, operational, performance, and safety requirements. They define what a product is, and they flow down into lower level requirements defining control architectures, hardware, and software. The industry is attempting to define regulatory requirements and a framework to gain safety clearance of such products

Alonso da Silva, Fabio