Browse Topic: Magnetic materials

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Determination of Acrylonitrile Content in Nitrile Butadiene Rubber Vulcanizates by Py-GCMS Techniques2026-26-05461/16/2026
Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (NBR), a copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile is known for its superior resistance to hydrocarbon oil, low gas permeability and excellent thermal stability. It is extensively used in seals, O-rings, conveyor belts and pneumatic tires. It is worth mentioning that these performance attributes are predominantly influenced by acrylonitrile content. While solid-state 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is an established technique for structural characterization of rubber vulcanizates, its high cost and accessibility limits its application in routine industrial analysis. This study aims to develop Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (Py-GCMS) as a robust, precise, cost-effective alternative to determine acrylonitrile content in NBR vulcanizates. This research demonstrates and establish a method to determine the acrylonitrile (ACN) content in finished rubber vulcanizates through pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GCMS). This method
Samanta, Rajyasree, Ghosh, Debojit, Anjana, Kanhaiya, Sen, Amit, Guria, Biswanath, Chanda, Jagannath, Samui, Barun, Ghosh PhD, Prasenjit, Mukhopadhyay, Rabindra
Material Handler Nomenclature and SpecificationsJ2506_202511 (Current)11/25/2025
This SAE Standard establishes terminology and the content of commercial literature specifications for self-propelled crawler and wheeled material handlers, pedestal mounted material handlers and their equipment as defined in 3.1. Illustrations used here are not intended to include all existing commercial machines or to be exactly descriptive of any particular machine. They have been provided to describe the principles to be used in applying this document. (Material handlers share many design characteristics with hydraulic excavators and log loaders; primarily 360 degree continuous rotation of the upperstructure relative to the undercarriage or mounting. They differ in their operating application. Material handlers are used for the handling of scrap material and normally utilize grapples or magnets. Hydraulic excavators are used for the excavation of earth, gravel and other loose material utilizing a bucket. Log loaders are used for the handling of logs and trees and normally utilize
MTC1, Earthmoving Machinery
Steel, Sheet, Strip, and Plate 5.0Cr - 1.3Mo - 0.50V (0.38 - 0.43C) (H-11) AMS6437L (Current)11/25/2025
This specification covers an aircraft-quality, low-alloy steel in the form of sheet, strip, and plate.
AMS E Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Committee
Steel Sheet, Strip, and Plate, 0.80Cr - 1.8Ni - 0.25Mo (0.49 - 0.55C), Annealed AMS6396H (Current)11/25/2025
This specification covers an aircraft quality, low alloy steel in the form of sheet, strip, and plate.
AMS E Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Committee
Steel Tubing, Seam-Free, Round, 0.95Cr - 0.20Mo (0.28 - 0.33C) (SAE 4130), 95.0 ksi (655 MPa) Tensile StrengthAMS6374F (Current)11/25/2025
This specification covers an aircraft-quality, low-alloy steel in the form of round, non-welded tubing free from OD surface seams.
AMS E Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Committee
Steel, Welded Tubing, 0.95Cr - 0.20Mo (0.28 - 0.33C) (SAE 4130)AMS6373K (Current)11/25/2025
This specification covers an aircraft-quality, low-alloy steel in the form of welded tubing.
AMS E Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Committee
Steel Sheet, Strip, and Plate 0.50Cr - 0.55Ni - 0.25Mo (0.38 - 0.43C) (SAE 8740) AMS6358M (Current)11/25/2025
This specification covers an aircraft quality, low alloy steel in the form of sheet, strip, and plate.
AMS E Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Committee
Steel Sheet, Strip, and Plate 0.50Cr - 0.55Ni - 0.25Mo (0.33 - 0.38C) (8735) AMS6357N (Current)11/25/2025
This specification covers an aircraft-quality, low-alloy steel in the form of sheet, strip, and plate.
AMS E Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Committee
Operating Characteristics of an Automotive Adjustable-Field Permanent Magnet Motors with 3D Magnetic Paths and Asymmetric Magnet Arrangement2024-32-00274/18/2025
This paper describes a three-dimensional structure of an adjustable field magnetization permanent magnet (PM) motor and a high-power density rotor structure with asymmetric permanent magnet arrangement for both high torque and high efficiency operation in the high speed and low torque range. 3D-FEA has confirmed that it is possible to achieve both high torque density and adjustable field magnetization. Load testing using the prototype proposed motor confirmed that high motor efficiency can be achieved even during high-speed operation.
Hiyoshi, Yutaro, Doi, Kotaro, Noguchi, Toshihiko
A Haptic Patch Can Transmit Complex Information to a Wearer’s SkinTBMG-5224812/12/2024
RESEARCH OF THE EFFECTS OF INTEGRATION INTO ARMOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SPINTRONIC MICROWAVE DETECTORS2024-01-333411/15/2024
ABSTRACT The authors studied the effects of different types of armor on the performance of spin-torque microwave detectors (STMD). Working prototypes of novel nano-sized spintronic sensors of microwave radiation for battlefield anti-radar and wireless communications applications are being integrated into Sensor Enhanced Armor (SEA) and Multifunctional Armor (MFA) and tested in SEA-NDE Lab at TARDEC. The preliminary theoretical estimations have shown that STMD based on the spin-torque effect in magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJ), when placed in the external electromagnetic field of a microwave frequency, can work as diode detectors with the maximum theoretical sensitivity of 1000 V/W. These STNO detectors could be scaled to sub-micron size, are frequency-selective and tunable, and are tolerant to ionizing radiation. We studied the performance of a STMD in two different dynamical regimes of detector operation: in well-known traditional in-plane regime of STMD operation and in recently
Bankowski, Elena, Meitzler, Thomas, Pesys, Tomas
Carbon Fiber Roving for Magnet Retention on BLDC MotorsF-0080-2024-12105/7/2024
This white paper discusses the application of carbon fiber roving for rotor magnet retention in high-performance Brushless DC (BLDC) motors, focusing on sectors like Advanced Air Mobility and motorsports. Highlighting the benefits of carbon fiber's tensile strength, thermal characteristics, and electrical resistivity, it compares thermoset and thermoplastic matrices, analyzing their trade-offs. It delves into manufacturing methods, particularly the advantages of in-situ winding of Hexcel® HexTow® IM7 12k carbon fiber directly onto rotors, versus pre-wound sleeves, emphasizing controlled processes for even stress distribution and preventing failure. Key design factors such as operating speed, temperature, and air gap dimensions are considered to optimize carbon fiber's application. Windings' expertise in fabricating high-tolerance carbon fiber wound rotors is showcased, highlighting its potential to enhance motor power output and offering collaboration for innovative retention solutions
Alderks, Blaine
Design approach on magnetic speed reduction of bikes while turning2022-28-048011/18/2022
Turning two-wheelers (bikes) are, at times, risky and often disturbs the stability of the vehicle. The primary causes are excessive speed, severe acceleration, and over tilting. This work intends in making aid for a safer ride and improves turn ability. With the introduction of automatic speed reducers, the vehicle would be subjected to magnetic braking while making a turn. A Motion stabilizer (like Gimbals) is modeled in CATIA and fabricated using PVC material. This fabricated stabilizer is placed in the vehicle setup in between the arms which carry the magnet. Braking action is done automatically as the magnet gets closer to the rim while turning the setup. Three modes of operations such as test (i) under no load, no angle, (ii) under magnetic load at zero angles, and (iii) under magnetic load, at an angle on both lateral directions, have been tested. A spectrum analyzer has been used, which records the frequency correspondingly to the speed is calculated. The counterbalancing weight
S, Ragul
Non-destructive Evaluation of the Magnetic Quality of Electrical Steel Sheets by Magnetic Barkhausen Noise (MBN) Analysis2022-01-02693/29/2022
Soft magnetic lamination core is a major component of all electric motors, and the magnetic quality of the lamination has a significant effect on the energy efficiency of the motor. The magnetic properties of electrical steel sheets, which are important design parameters for the manufacturing of electric motors, are normally measured on cut steel strips by standard Epstein frame method, which is destructive and is not suitable for the evaluation of magnetic anisotropy. This paper presents a relatively new technology, i.e., magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN) analysis, to evaluate the magnetic quality of electrical steel sheets. This method is featured by non-destructive, simple measurement, short measuring time, and online/offline measurements, etc. In addition, it can be readily used to estimate the magnetic anisotropy of electrical steel sheets. Non-oriented electrical steel sheets at different stages of thermomechanical processing were evaluated by MBN analysis, and the textures of the
He, Youliang
Polyetherimide for magnet wire application 2022-01-04003/29/2022
Magnet wire is composed of conducting core and thin layer of electrical insulation. Cupper (Cu) is typically used as conducting core, and various polymers such as polyamideimide, polyimide, and polyesterimide are used for electrical insulation. The role of magnet wire is involved in interchanging between electrical energy and mechanical energy for energy transformation application such as transformer, motor, generator, and many other equipment. Currently, electric vehicles (EV) industry is rapidly growing and consequential demands on related components are increasing as well. Compared to combustion engine, EV needs more electrical power with higher voltages or higher currents, which can increase probability of electrical discharge. The degradation of insulation layer can happen with the polymer bond breakage under the partial discharge electric stresses. To keep high performance under higher voltage, insulating polymer should have high heat resistances, chemical resistance, and low
Kim, Sang Hoon, Lee, Dae Ho
Fine-Tuning Alloys for High-Temperature UseTBMG-396078/1/2021
A phenomenon related to the invar effect — which enables magnetic materials such as nickel-iron (Ni-Fe) alloys to keep from expanding with increasing temperature — has been discovered in paramagnetic, or weakly magnetized, high-temperature alloys.
Miniscule Robots of Metal and PlasticTBMG-385152/1/2021
Researchers have been pursuing the development of robots so tiny that they can maneuver through blood vessels and deliver medications to certain points in the body. Now, scientists have succeeded in building such micromachines out of metal and plastic in which these two materials are interlocked as closely as links in a chain. This is possible thanks to a new manufacturing technique they have devised.
Nanothermometers Improve Temperature ImagingTBMG-385452/1/2021
NIST researchers are in the early stages of a massive undertaking to design and build a fleet of tiny ultra-sensitive thermometers. If they succeed, their system will be the first to make real-time measurements of temperature on the microscopic scale in an opaque 3D volume — which could include medical implants. The project is called Thermal Magnetic Imaging and Control (Thermal MagIC), and the researchers say it could revolutionize temperature measurements in many fields, including biology and medicine. Thermal MagIC will work by using nanometer-sized objects whose magnetic signals change with temperature. The objects would be incorporated into the liquids or solids being studied — the melted plastic that might be used as part of an artificial joint replacement, for example. A remote sensing system would then pick up these magnetic signals, meaning the system being studied would be free from wires or other bulky external objects.
Chemical Identification by Magneto-Elastic Sensing (ChIMES)TBMG-384832/1/2021
A low-cost sensor technology, called Chemical Identification by Magneto-Elastic Sensing (ChIMES), uses target response materials (TRMs) as actuators in magneto-elastic (M-E) sensors (Figure 1).
Reconfigurable Electronics Based on Multiferroics and Nanomagnetism21AERP02_092/1/2021
Research could lead to the development of new materials with large magnetoelectric (ME) coupling for next-generation multifunctional devices, including, multi-state (neuromorphic-like) circuits and memories, and E-field tunable microwave resonators for secure communications. Air Force Research Laboratory, Arlington, Virginia Multifunctional magnetoelectric materials with high exchange represent a missing “holy grail” of materials physics. To combine polarization and magnetization in the same solid is nothing short of actually controlling the fundamental nature of electromagnetism in matter. Although magnetoelectricity (ME) is an intrinsic phenomenon in some natural materials at low temperature, such single-phase materials suffer from an extremely weak ME exchange. In contrast, composites consisting of magnetostrictive and piezoelectric phases can feature dramatically larger ME coefficients. This proposed program focuses on achieving the disruptive potential of emerging multifunctional
Reconfigurable Electronics Based on Multiferroics and NanomagnetismTBMG-385392/1/2021
Multifunctional magnetoelectric materials with high exchange represent a missing “holy grail” of materials physics. To combine polarization and magnetization in the same solid is nothing short of actually controlling the fundamental nature of electromagnetism in matter. Although magneto-electricity (ME) is an intrinsic phenomenon in some natural materials at low temperature, such single-phase materials suffer from an extremely weak ME exchange.
Sensing Magnetic FieldsTBMG-385112/1/2021
Innovators at NASA Armstrong developed an optical waveguide fiber Bragg grating (FBG) that is sensitive to an external magnetic field. The technology allows direct coupling of the external field to the electromagnetic (EM) wave propagating in the fiber, bypassing the need to first measure strain.
High-Efficiency Megawatt MotorTBMG-3813712/1/2020
Innovators at NASA Glenn Research Center have designed a High-Efficiency Megawatt Motor (HEMM), a wound-field partially superconducting machine. The HEMM implements a combination of superconducting and non-superconducting elements, along with an integrated cryocooler, to achieve some of the benefits of a superconducting motor without the need for an external cryogenic system.
Design of New Piezoelectric Composites Using Nanocellulose20AERP12_1012/1/2020
Using cellulose crystals as building blocks for the design and development of new low-density functional polymer composites. Air Force Research Laboratory, Arlington, Virginia This research project focused on cellulose crystals as building blocks for the design and development of new low-density functional polymer composites. Although the piezoelectricity of cellulose has been predicted from its noncentrosymmetric crystal structure, it has not been measured accurately, nor has cellulose been properly exploited as a piezoelectric material. If it is proven, it could enable novel low-density electroactive materials capable of surpassing the performance of the best synthetic piezoelectric polymer such as polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF). To fulfill this objective, a systematic study was required to judiciously manipulate dipoles of individual cellulose nanocrystals to produce polar ordering at the macroscale and accurately characterize the nano-to-mesoscale structural ordering and
Tiny, Magnetically Powered Neural StimulatorTBMG-3800811/1/2020
Neuroengineers have created a tiny surgical implant that can electrically stimulate the brain and nervous system without using a battery or wired power supply. The device draws its power from magnetic energy and is about the size of a grain of rice. It is the first magnetically powered neural stimulator that produces the same kind of high-frequency signals as clinically approved, battery-powered implants that are used to treat epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, chronic pain, and other conditions.
Soft Magnetic Nanocomposite for High-Temperature ApplicationsTBMG-3798011/1/2020
Commercial soft magnetic cores used in power electronics are limited by core loss and decreased ferromagnetism at high temperatures. Extending functional performance to high temperatures enables increased power density in electric systems with fixed power output and elevated operating temperature.
“One-Way” Electronic DevicesTBMG-3779910/1/2020
Waves — whether they are light waves, sound waves, or any other kind — travel in the same manner in forward and reverse directions. This is known as the principle of reciprocity. If waves could be routed in one direction only — breaking reciprocity — many applications could be transformed by enabling “one-way” components such as circulators and isolators that enable two-way communication, which could double the data capacity of today's wireless networks. These components are essential to quantum computers that read a qubit without disturbing it. They are also critical to radar systems in self-driving cars or those used by the military.
Quantum Switch Turns Metals into InsulatorsTBMG-3781510/1/2020
Most modern electronic devices rely on tiny, finely tuned electrical currents to process and store information. These currents dictate how fast computers run, how regularly pacemakers tick, and how securely money is stored in the bank. Researchers have demonstrated a new way to precisely control such electrical currents by leveraging the interaction between an electron's spin (the quantum magnetic field it inherently carries) and its orbital rotation around the nucleus.
Q&A: Wireless Power for Neural StimulationTBMG-376579/1/2020
Prof. Jacob Robinson and a team of researchers at Rice University (Houston, TX) developed a prototype of an implantable neural stimulator — the size of a grain of rice — that needs no batteries. Instead, it is powered wirelessly by means of an externally applied magnetic field.
Tiny, Magnetically Powered Implant Stimulates Brain Without BatteryTBMG-373448/1/2020
Rice University neuroengineers have created a tiny surgical implant that can electrically stimulate the brain and nervous system without using a battery or wired power supply.
Magnetic Force Manages PainTBMG-374648/1/2020
Mainstream modern medicine centers on using pharmaceuticals to make chemical or molecular changes inside the body to treat disease; however, recent breakthroughs in the control of forces at small scales have opened up a new treatment idea: using physical force to kickstart helpful changes inside cells. This idea is referred to as “mechanoceuticals.”
Room-Temperature Magnon SwitchTBMG-374498/1/2020
Researchers have demonstrated a potentially new way to make switches inside a computer’s processing chips, enabling them to use less energy and radiate less heat. The practical technique controls magnons, which are essentially waves that travel through magnetic materials and can carry information. To use magnons for information processing requires a switching mechanism that can control the transmission of a magnon signal through the device.
Active Material Created Out of Microscopic Spinning ParticlesTBMG-374628/1/2020
At the atomic level, a glass of water and a spoonful of crystalline salt couldn’t be more different. Water atoms move around freely and randomly, while salt crystals are locked in place in a lattice. But some new materials show an intriguing propensity to sometimes behave like water and sometimes like salt, giving them interesting transport properties and holding potential promise for applications like mixing and delivery in the pharmaceutical industry.
“Racetrack Memory” Digital Data StorageTBMG-374728/1/2020
A team of scientists has created racetrack memory, a new type of enhanced digital data storage. Racetrack memory, which reconfigures magnetic fields, could supplant current methods of mass data storage, such as flash memory and disk drives, due to its improved density of information storage, faster operation, and lower energy use. The team’s focus was on a skyrmion racetrack memory — an undeveloped type of memory that reverses the processes of existing storage.
Graphene Device with Superconducting, Insulating, and Magnetic PropertiesTBMG-370326/1/2020
Thinner than a single strand of DNA yet 200 times stronger than steel, graphene is an excellent conductor of electricity and heat and it can conform to any number of shapes, from an ultrathin 2D sheet to an electronic circuit.
Drug-Loaded Microrobots Attach to Cancer TissueTBMG-371166/1/2020
A drug-loaded microrobotic needle effectively targets and remains attached to cancerous tissue in lab experiments without needing continuous application of a magnetic field, allowing more precise drug delivery.
Solenoid Valve Health MonitorTBMG-370056/1/2020
The Solenoid Valve Health Monitor System (SVHMS) was developed to remotely monitor the health of solenoid valves, lowering operational costs and increasing reliability by predicting valve failures before they occur. The system measures and analyzes steady state and transient components of the magnetic field and indirectly, the electric current in a solenoid valve during normal operation. It enables continuous monitoring of the integrity and operational status of solenoid valves without the need for interrupting their operation to conduct frequent inspections.
Improving Data Speeds with Laser-Activated MagnetsTBMG-370256/1/2020
A new magnetic material could boost the storage capacity and processing speed of hard drives used in cloud-based servers. This could enable users of cloud data systems to load large files in seconds instead of minutes.
Alleviating the Magnetic Effects on Magnetometers Using Vehicle Kinematics for Yaw Estimation for Autonomous Ground Vehicles2020-01-10254/14/2020
Autonomous vehicle operation is dependent upon accurate position estimation and thus a major concern of implementing the autonomous navigation is obtaining robust and accurate data from sensors. This is especially true, in case of Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) sensor data. The IMU consists of a 3-axis gyro, 3-axis accelerometer, and 3-axis magnetometer. The IMU provides vehicle orientation in 3D space in terms of yaw, roll and pitch. Out of which, yaw is a major parameter to control the ground vehicle’s lateral position during navigation. The accelerometer is responsible for attitude (roll-pitch) estimates and magnetometer is responsible for yaw estimates. However, the magnetometer is prone to environmental magnetic disturbances which induce errors in the measurement. The present work focuses on alleviating magnetic disturbances for ground vehicles by fusing the vehicle kinematics information with IMU senor in an Extended Kalman filter (EKF) with the vehicle orientation represented
Dudekula, Ahammad Basha, Naber, Jeffrey D.
Current control method for asymmetric dual three-phase Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor2020-01-04704/14/2020
Based on the vector space decomposition (VSD) transformation, the phase currents of the asymmetric dual three phase permanent magnet synchronous motor (ADT-PMSM) can be mapped into three orthogonal subspaces, i.e., α–β subspace, x-y subspace and O1-O2 subspace. The mechanical energy conversion takes place in the α–β subspace, while in the x-y and O1-O2 subspaces only losses are produced. With neutral points being isolated, O1-O2 subspace can be omitted. So the vector control algorithm can control the α–β and x-y subspaces separately to realize the four dimensional current control. In the α–β subspace, deviation decoupling control method is employed to realize the mechanical energy conversion, which is robust to the motor parameters. In order to reduce the 5th and 7th harmonic currents caused by the inverter nonlinearity and some other factors, a resonant controller is adopted based on a new synchronous rotating coordinate transformation matrix to implement the current closed loop
Wu, Zhihong, Gu, Weisong, Zhu, Yuan, Lu, Ke
Fabrication and Electrical Characterization of Correlated Oxide Field Effect Switching Devices for High Speed ElectronicsTBMG-366064/1/2020
Metal insulator transitions (MITs) in oxides are an intriguing problem from both a fundamental materials physics and an applied technology perspective. Though the precise roles of electron correlations and lattice distortions on the phase transition remains an active area of research, many recent theoretical studies have suggested intimate interplay among the orbital splitting/polarization, correlation effects, and Peierls dimerization in the 3d1 system. Occupied states have been probed by x ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and a rough structure of unoccupied 3d-like states have been deduced by O K-edge x-ray absorption measurements. NbO2, a 4d1 system, like VO2 crystallizes in a distorted rutile type structure with Nb dimers and undergoes a temperature induced MIT, albeit at a considerably higher temperature of ~1083 K. It is commonly accepted that because 4d orbital valence states are more dispersed in both space and energy, Mott physics is less important in 4d transition metal
Iron Nanorobots Destroy Cancer CellsTBMG-362383/1/2020
Drug-coated iron nanowires that can be guided to the site of a tumor using an external magnetic field before activating a three-step cancer-killing mechanism could provide an effective option for cancer therapy.
Magnetic Sensor Circuits on Various SurfacesTBMG-362663/1/2020
Researchers have developed the world’s thinnest and lightest magnetic sensor matrix sheet system that visualizes the two-dimensional distribution of magnetism on various surfaces.
Tiny Magnetics Show Promise for Medical ApplicationsTBMG-362463/1/2020
Small magnetic objects are showing promise in the biomedical field. Magnetic nanostructures have interesting properties that enhance novel applications in medical diagnosis and allow the exploration of new therapeutic techniques.
Magnetic Shield Using Proximity Coupled, Spatially Varying Superconducting Order ParametersTBMG-361653/1/2020
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center has developed a magnetic shielding design that features simplicity, ease of use, reproducibility, longevity, and scalability. It does not require activation, monitoring, or wiring. The invention uses the superconducting “proximity effect” and/or the “inverse proximity effect” to form a spatially varying order parameter. When designed to expel magnetic flux from a region of space, the proximity effect(s) are used in concert to make the superconducting order parameter strongly superconducting in the center and more weakly superconducting toward the perimeter. The shield is then passively cooled through the superconducting transition temperature.
Intelligent MicrorobotsTBMG-360042/1/2020
Researchers have developed a microrobot that measures a few micrometers across and resembles a paper bird made with origami. But unlike a paper structure, the robot moves without a visible force. It flaps its wings or bends its neck and retracts its head via magnetism.
Composite Electrical ConnectorsAIR4567B (Current)1/21/2020
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) establishes guidelines for evaluating composite electrical connectors and accessories.
AE-8C1 Connectors Committee
Magnetic Metamaterial Could Improve MRIsTBMG-357721/1/2020
Researchers have developed a low-cost, “intelligent” metamaterial that could revolutionize magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), making the entire MRI process faster, safer, and more accessible to patients around the world.
Magneto-Optic Biosensor Using Bio-Functionalized Magnetic NanoparticlesTBMG-358271/1/2020
Magnetic nanoparticles are leading to the development of more sensitive, rapid, and cost-effective biological sensors. These sensors can be used for a variety of applications including the detection of medical conditions and bioterrorist threats.
Material for Faster Computer MemoryTBMG-351529/1/2019
Scientists are studying bismuth ferrite (BFO) material that has the potential to store information much more efficiently than is currently possible. BFO could also be used in sensors, transducers, and other electronics.
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