Browse Topic: Friction materials

Items (569)
The purpose of this SAE Recommended Practice is to establish a uniform laboratory procedure for securing and reporting the friction and wear characteristics of brake linings. The performance data obtained can be used for in-plant quality control by brake lining manufacturers and for the quality assessment of incoming shipments by the purchasers of brake linings.
Brake Linings Standards Committee
Model-Based Brake Disc Temperature Prediction on High Speed Testing Mode and Circuit2020-01-02144/14/2020
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits the motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often accomplished by friction energy. Commonly, most brakes use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. If braking is repeated or sustained in high load or high-speed conditions, the motion will be unstable and can lead to a loss of stopping power because the disc capability for braking is not enough. These phenomena are generally defined as brake fading. Brake fade is caused by an overheating brake system. This paper describes the thermal modeling and process to predict the disk temperature under a condition which causes the fade characteristics. Also, the model of disc temperature prediction developed with consideration of acceleration and deceleration from the vehicle specification by combining the full vehicle modeling with thermal disc model. The disc temperature model is a highly reliable model because it is correlated with measurement data and based on this correlated thermal model, it can be predicted the brake disc geometrical parameters according to the specification change of the vehicles in the concept stage before the prototype development.
Jeong, PilYoungLee, JaekilOswald, MarioKellner, Stefan
Optimized Wet Clutch Design2019-32-05531/24/2020
Multi-plate wet clutches used in motorbikes transmit the torque by friction under pressure between driving and driven Plates. The life & performance of the clutch for the friction material used, depends on amount of energy generated during clutch slip, amount & uniformity of heat dissipation amongst the plates and surface texture of mating surfaces. Above parameters if not properly considered during design stage may lead to higher temperature of rubbing surfaces. Higher temperature further reduces the friction coefficient and increases the wear rate of friction material leading ultimately to lower torque capacity of clutch. The temperature rise in a wet clutch is the balance between amount of heat generated and the amount of heat dissipated by oil flowing through clutch. The maximum amount of oil is limited by the requirement of clutch drag torque, Which decides the quality of neutral finding and gear shift feel on vehicle. Further, if roughness of rubbing surfaces is not controlled in mass production, it leads to fast wear of friction material during initial operating cycles. The rate of wear is faster if the heights of surface asperities are of high magnitude. This paper explains the design features of clutch developed by Endurance Technologies Ltd., optimized to achieve above aspects, for the engines having clutch cooling oil supply through the gear box input shaft. I. An innovative oil management concept is incorporated which distributes the oil as per requirement amongst the plates. Adequate distribution of oil facilitates to have optimum oil flow with minimum desired drag torque. It also ensures effective heat dissipation throughout the clutch assembly. A part of oil is directed to cool the clutch clamping springs which reduces the clamping load loss. II. The validation procedure to confirm the adequacy of oil flow through the plurality of plates is developed. III. The defined controlled surface texture of steel plates provides consistent and controlled wear rate in mass production. Further, it ensures the dynamic torque capacity within a narrow band over the longer life span. The above two features of multi-plate wet clutch design achieved reduction in wear by 56 % and improved dynamic torque capacity by 16 % at the end of durability tests.
Bhone, NitinThakare, SachinJahagirdar, Ashutosh
Prediction of Friction Durability in Off-Road Applications Based on Mechanistic Understanding of the Effects of Fluids and Surfaces on Clutch Friction2019-01-233912/19/2019
After new transmission lubricants are developed there is an extensive validation program where friction durability testing is performed on multiple clutch materials. Each durability test can run for long terms and the entire validation program can take much longer terms. A well designed lubricant and friction material will deliver the necessary friction control for construction equipment to operate at optimum level. A mechanistic construct has been evaluated to calculate friction durability in clutch systems based on fluid and surface tribological properties. Fluid properties include both boundary frictional and rheological effects. Surface properties include elastic modulus, surface roughness, asperity density and asperity tip radius. Using this mechanistic construct friction durability has been predicted. In the past, researchers in the field have often associated lubricant induced glazing of the friction material surface as the cause of the loss of friction control in clutch systems. In the current study, results show that wear is also a dominant cause of friction loss. In short clutch friction tests the rate of change in surface properties and fluid properties have been determined. Fluid friction properties do not change in these tests and surface properties of materials can change significantly. Based on the rate of change in surface properties, friction durability predictions have been made in order to shorten product validation time.
Devlin, MarkAdhvaryu, AtanuCameron, TimothyKariwa, ShinpeiAbekawa, Toshiharu
Exploration of Dry Sliding Wear Behaviour of Sisal Fiber Reinforced Cashew Nut Shell Liquid and Epoxy Polymer Matrix Composite as an Alternative Friction Material in Automobiles2019-28-017310/11/2019
The brake pad is one of the foremost imperative parts of the vehicle. Due to the environmental requirement, natural materials were the alternate source for products manufacturing. The product composite made by using hot press techniques with mixing ingredients such as natural fiber (treated sisal), cashew nut filler, graphite and alumina with resin (cashew nut shell liquid - CNSL and epoxy). Two formulas and four samples of each set were composed by varying the resin type of CNSL and epoxy and prepared the test samples with attaining better hardness. The main intern of this proposed effort is to appraise the wear in dry sliding and performance of friction of the prepared composites. The composites are taken for tribo test by varying the load of 10,20,30,40 N and sliding distance of 1000, 2000 m respectively. Experiments were performed at stated process parametric conditions to record the responses. The result shows that the CNSL resin composites specific wear resistance and frictional coefficients are found better than epoxy resin composites. The addition of filler element cashew nut shell particular shows a better wear resistant and friction coefficient. On the other hand, low wear resistance and low friction coefficient were appraised at a high load of 40 N and sliding distance of 2000 m tribo parametric conditions. Further scanning electron microscopic analysis was carried out to observe wear mechanics with the formation of very fine debris on the worn surface and counter face of the composite.
Ranganathan, SoundararajanGopal, ShanthoshMagudeeswaran, TharunkumarRangasamy, Ramamoorthi
The Improvement Brake’s Qualities of Vehicle by Developing the Method of the Choosing Frictional Pairs of the Brakes Mechanisms2019-01-21459/15/2019
One of the reasons for the large number of road accidents on highways in Ukraine [1] is the instability of the braking properties due to the unstable characteristics of the brake mechanisms’ friction pairs. The manufacturer produces new automobiles with installed brake pairs (brake pads and their counter bodies), which have passed long-term tests for the stability of the friction coefficient and braking forces distribution of between the axles. This ensures the compatibility of the friction pairs characteristics for front and rear brake mechanisms according to the criteria of heat resistance. During operation, instead of worn-out brake pads, brake discs and drums, drivers can purchase new ones, manufactured as spare parts. However, in the well-known literature there are no methods that allow to check the compatibility of the friction pairs characteristics for front and rear brake mechanisms according to the criteria of heat resistance. In the article a method for choosing a set of friction pairs of brake mechanisms for passenger car during operation is proposed. Assessment of the compatibility of the friction pairs characteristics for front and rear brake mechanisms was carried out according to the criteria of heat resistance.
Podrigalo, MikhailKlets, DmytroKholodov, MykhailoBogomolov, ViktorTurenko, AnatoliyMolodan, AndriiRudzinskyi, VolodymyrTarasov, YuriiMykolai, AloksaHatsko, Vasyl
Squeal Noise Improvement by High Damping & High Stiffness under Layer Material2019-01-21119/15/2019
The purpose of this research is to clarify how damping characteristics of Under Layer (hereafter “UL”) material in the brake pads (hereafter “PAD”) influences brake squeal noise performance. In this study, UL material structure and dynamic viscoelasticity, for two different types of UL formulations are investigated. In addition, PAD damping ratio and squeal noise performance for multiple UL formulations are verified. As a result, the raw material orientation is determined based on manufacturing method, and it causes the UL material’s anisotropic properties. Dynamic viscoelasticity are dependent on the direction in which they are measured. In particular, the loss modulus, which is the damping element of dynamic viscoelasticity, is higher in the direction of the raw material orientation for the high damping and high stiffness UL formulation. In addition, it was confirmed that this loss modulus in the direction of the raw material orientation is effective for bending vibration. In the verification, the study focuses on the PAD damping ratio and squeal noise performance in the 1st bending vibration of the PAD. It is clarified that the PAD damping ratio increased as the loss modulus increases, which leads to improve squeal noise. In conclusion, this research proves that the high damping and high stiffness UL material is effective for squeal noise improvement.
Nishioka, MasatoJohnson, LeanneRosalez, SeanSuzuki, Shusuke
Ceramic Bound Materials: A Suitable Solution for Light Brakes2019-01-21099/15/2019
A ceramic bound matrix has been investigated to be used as a friction material. The materials were produced by means of ceramic technology using frits containing silicates, and ceramic friction modifiers such as tin oxide, zircon, iron oxide, magnesium oxide. Four formulations were tested by means of a tribometer (pin-on-disc tester) using a gray cast iron counterpart. Test section included speeds between 1 and 12 ms-1, and loads between 25 and 400 N. The coefficient of friction of the tested specimens were between 0.7 and 0.4, and exhibited sensitivity to speed at low loads (25 N), while they are quite stables at high loads (400N). The characterization of the tribolayers was carried out by means of scanning electron microscopy. The four developed materials were named A, B, C, and D. They exhibited different wear rates and coefficients of friction. All the materials exhibited sensitivity to speed, while showed a lower sensitivity to load. The coefficient of friction level seems to be suitable for brake applications, oscillating between 0.6 and 0.4, depending on the test section. This kind of materials with further efforts can be possibly useful in future electric vehicles that will not demand large and expensive brakes.
Dante, Roberto C.Cotilli, EdoardoConforti, MichaelCotilli, MarioSerrano-Posada, José CarlosSchramm, TobiasOstermeyer, Georg-PeterDastrù, Marco
Brake Rotor Corrosion and Friction Cleaning Effect on Vehicle Judder Performance2019-01-21159/15/2019
Brake disc corrosion has emerged as an important field of study within the automotive industry due to the wide range of lining materials that are currently used worldwide, and their inherent rust-cleaning properties. The presence of oxide layers irregularly deposited on the cast iron disc surfaces usually leads to a forced, braking-induced vibration that can reach the driver’s position as a pronounced annoyance. Hence, the friction material composition directly impacts on the judder performance during the early corrosion-removal stage. This study incorporates both dynamometer and vehicle tests into the definition of a predictive methodology that allows corrosion-induced vibrations to be investigated at both system and vehicle levels. The oxide film is artificially generated by means of a salt spray chamber under steady-state climate conditions in order to guarantee a repetitive and robust procedure. The vibration response of the system is objectively evaluated in the form of caliper accelerations and pressure (BPV) / torque (BTV) oscillations throughout a reduced rust-removal test sequence composed of 30 snubs; basic spectral and order analyses are conducted with the gathered data. Furthermore, vehicle-based results are correlated with the subjective ratings that an expert driver gives to the different vibrations perceived at chassis level. The in-service roughness of the oxide layer, on the other hand, is indirectly monitored by using a couple of non-contacting capacitive sensors that measure the variation in disc thickness (DTV). Ultimately, this paper is intended to characterize the inherent corrosion-cleaning capability of different friction materials -paying special attention to the presence of copper-, as well as revealing their impact on the vehicle judder subsequently induced during the actual removal of the oxide layers.
Molina Montasell, NarcísFerrer, Bernat
Influence of Amount of Phenolic Resin on the Tribological Performance of Environment-Friendly Friction Materials2019-01-21059/15/2019
The binder in friction materials (FMs) plays a very crucial role which binds all the ingredients firmly so that they can function the way they were supposed to do. The type and amount of binder, both are very critical for manipulating the desired performance properties, which mainly include friction and its sensitivity towards operating parameters, wear resistance, counter-face friendliness, noise, vibration etc. Although a lot is reported on the influence of types of resins on tribo-performance of FMs, hardly any paper pertains to paint this on a bigger canvas with more detailed understanding of the amount of resin in FMs on the performance properties. The present study addresses these aspects by developing brake-pads with identical composition but varying in amount (wt. %) of straight phenolic resins (6, 8, 10 and 12) by compensating the difference with barite, a space filler. The ingredients did not contain asbestos, Copper, Zinc, etc. and hence were environment friendly. Tribological performance of the composites was evaluated on a full-scale inertia brake dynamometer following JASO C406 test schedule. With increase in the resin contents, most of the performance properties showed improvement. The performance ranking of pads was done using ‘Multiple Objective Optimizations based on Ratio Analysis (MOORA)’ method based on several conflicting criterions. Worn surface topography of pads was investigated using SEM technique to understand the underlying wear mechanisms.
Kalel, NavnathBijwe, JayashreeDarpe, Ashish
A Study on the Optimum Reduction of Required Brake Fluid Level for Improvement of the High Speed Continuous Brake Distance2019-01-21219/15/2019
The high speed continuous braking distance assessment is the worst condition for thermal fades. This study was conducted to investigate the relationship between fade characteristic and friction materials & brake fluid amount for improving braking distance. So, we used the dynamometer to measure the friction coefficient, braking distance and required brake fluid amount. Through the measurements, the research was carried out as follows. First of all, we studied the influence of friction coefficient about different shapes (chamfer shape, area of the friction material, number of slots) on the same friction material. Secondly, we knew the effects of braking distance by the shape of the friction material. Through these two studies, the shape of the friction material favorable to the fade characteristics was derived. Finally, we measured the amount of required brake fluid in caliper after 10 consecutive braking cycles through Dynamometer. And then, we measured the amount of compression deformation and uneven wear of the friction material. It was found that the above two factors cause the increase the amount of required brake fluid. Through this study, in order to have strength for the fade characteristic, it is required that continuous management of the friction material and shape of brake pad. This is because the friction coefficient and the high temperature compression deformation of the friction material are determined by its material. Also, it is necessary to robust design the caliper for reducing for uneven wear about the brake pad.
Kim, JunggyuKim, Kwang YunSo, Eue-sub
Development of Empirical Asperity Contact Model for Wet Friction Material2019-01-03464/2/2019
A wet clutch couples or decouples gear elements to alter torque paths in an automatic transmission system. During the gear shifting event, the clutch torque is directly transmitted to the output shaft. Hence, clutch torque heavily influences the dynamics of the transmission. In order to evaluate the behavior of the transmission early and efficiently, the development process increasingly relies on high-fidelity transmission system simulations with added complexity. However, a wet clutch continues to be modeled using Coulomb’s friction in a typical shift simulation. Its linear framework does not physically represent non-linear hydrodynamic effects due to the presence of oil layer during clutch engagement. To make up the lack of physics, Coulomb’s clutch model often requires extensive tuning to match actual shift behaviors. Alternatively, a squeeze film based clutch model, coupled with an asperity contact model, can be employed to represent hydrodynamic behaviors and enable the broader use of dynamic simulation models in transmission development. However, while the squeeze film model has been extensively studied over the years, the asperity contact model remains largely unexamined. In this research, the contact behaviors of the asperities are empirically characterized for a wet clutch friction material. The results are compared against the base theory of Greenwood-Williamson asperity contact model (GW model) which is commonly accepted in wet clutch modeling. The analysis shows that the key assumptions of GW model, specifically the elastic deformation of spherical asperity tip and Gaussian distribution of their heights, do not hold for clutch friction materials. A new empirical asperity contact model is developed for wet friction material based on asperity roughness characterization and microscopic contact area measurements. The empirical model provides an accurate representation of asperity behaviors in wet clutch modeling, as an alternative to the conventional GW model, for high-fidelity transmission system simulations. The modeling framework is also applicable to a broad range of friction materials used in dry clutches, brakes and other applications that are characterized with hard constituents embedded in an elastic matrix.
Haria, HiralFujii, YujiPietron, Gregory M.Miyagawa, MasatoshiTsuchiya, TakahiroNakamura, ShinjiWendel, MatthewMiyoshi, HiroyaHou, ShiyangWang, PengchuanKatopodes, Nikolaos
Improved Test Method for Tribological Evaluation of High Performance Plastics2019-01-01834/2/2019
Engineering plastics are widely used in many tribological applications due to their inherent advantages such as reduced weight, ease of manufacturing, improved chemical compatibility, and damping characteristics. However, the process of selecting an appropriate polymeric material system for a specific application involves significant experimentation. Although, standardized methods of evaluating tribological performance of engineered plastics exist, their ability to be indicative of part performance in the end application is rather poor, primarily because of (a) the typically low pressure-velocity combinations used in these tests, (b) their inability to properly differentiate between various failure modes (wear vs creep vs melting of the plastic in case of thermoplastic polymers) and (c) the large number of variables that exist in a tribological system including pressure, relative speeds, thermomechanical properties of mating components, surface roughness/hardness parameters, type of lubricant and most importantly, part geometry and large variability of thermal management in the application. In the present work, a four hour test to evaluate dry and lubricated wear of high performance plastics is developed. This allows for multiple repeats to understand variation within samples. A modified multi-grooved test specimen is used to promote two-body wear by removal of wear debris through the grooves. For the four hour lubricated test, the pressure-velocity conditions are chosen to ensure that the test is in mixed lubrication regime. The experimental set-up is described and tribological data for a range of engineering plastics are summarized. A case study is presented where a thrust washer molded using a thermoplastic material that was developed and rated using the proposed methodology, is compared to a thrust washer molded from a commercially available material, using test parameters as in the end application. Results show that the proposed test methodology is suitable for rating tribological performance of materials and correlates well to component performance in the end application.
Sundararaman, Saikrishna
The Influence of Friction Modifiers in Fully Formulated Motorcycle Engine Oils2018-32-002410/30/2018
Globally, emissions legislation placed on motorcycles is becoming ever more stringent [1]. One way of meeting these new regulations is to use friction modifiers (FMs) in the engine oil to reduce frictional losses in the engine. This is, however, complicated by the fact that many motorcycles use a common oil sump for both the engine and a lubricated clutch. It is often the case that if a FM reduces friction in a steel/steel contact it will also reduce friction in a steel/friction material contact. Therefore, it is usually viewed that there will be a necessary compromise between maximizing engine efficiency and maintaining efficient clutch performance. In this paper we examine the effect of a range of organic FMs on commercial fully formulated motorcycle engine oils (MCOs) using benchtop tribotests and full-scale rig tests (SAE #2 clutch test machine). The results show that by careful selection of appropriate FM chemistry it is possible to reduce steel/steel friction whilst maintaining clutch performance. To obtain a deeper understanding of the effect of FM chemical structure on the clutch friction performance the friction-speed (μ-v) behaviour of a commercial MCO formulation is investigated. It is found, in agreement with previous studies, that a lower amount of branching in the alkyl tail of an organic FM corresponds to a positive correlation between friction and speed of the type usually desired in an automatic transmission fluid (ATF). This contrasts with the μ-v behaviour of a commercial MCO intended for use in motorcycles with a wet clutch, which shows almost no correlation between friction and speed. This insight could be used to help rational design of new OFMs for motorcycle oils.
Gillespie, DavidMoody, GarethViadas, Aitziber
Properties and Limitation of an Oxide Coated Aluminum Brake Rotor2018-01-187710/5/2018
The electrification of the powertrain and the thereto related recuperation of the electric engine saves the energy in the battery and thus reduces the thermally dissipated brake energy, which leads to lower brake rotor temperatures compared to combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). These new conditions enable to reconsider brake disc concepts. Including lightweight design in heavy battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and the increasingly reliant corrosion resistance of brake rotors, Aluminum is a promising approach for new brake disc concepts. In the past, Aluminum brake disc concepts have already been deployed. For instance Aluminum Metal-Matrix Composite (Al-MMC) concepts in the Lotus Elise S1 and on the rear axle of the Volvo V40 [1]. The presented concept is a different approach and separates the friction system from the bulk Aluminum brake disc, achieved by coating of the friction rings. By locally reinforcing the friction rings, the good machinability and ductility of the base body is maintained and simultaneously the friction surface is sufficiently protected to resist the frictional loading during a brake application. In this work, fundamental studies on a brake dynamometer were conducted and supplemented by microstructural investigation to identify damage mechanisms and to judge the technical application of the concept.
Gulden, FlorianGramstat, SebastianStich, AntonHoppel, Heinz WernerTetzlaff, Ulrich
Cementitious-Based Brake Pads Technology: Performance, Low Energy Consumption, Emission Drop2018-01-186710/5/2018
Brake pads employing innovative hydraulic inorganic binders in place of common state-of-the-art thermosetting phenolic resins have been produced by means of a unique prototypal equipment and a distinctive manufacturing process. The unicity of the process enables us to exclude completely any thermal cycle in the manufacturing steps, with a considerable positive energy balance compared to the standard counterpart. Realized brake pads have indeed been successfully tuned to meet the braking performances of phenolic counterparts. In the present work our latest efforts in this field are illustrated, focusing our attention to three main areas of interest: performance, energy consumption, volatile organic emissions. One selected exponent of our cementitious-based material is reported, demonstrating its capability of matching both standard OE and AM braking performances (investigated through a full scale brake dynamometer by SAE J2522 procedure), and its feasibility to be released as an actual AM material according to ECE R90 regulation (road test on vehicle). The energetic evaluation of the employed technology in term of prototypal manufacturing process and employed raw materials has been established, demonstrating the advantages of this new system compared to the standard one. Our investigation finally reports selected thermo-chemical analysis (TG-EGA and pyrolysis PY-GC/MS) devoted at identifying the key organic compounds potentially/eventually emitted during braking at various temperatures. Our material shows a dramatic drop of the volatile hazardous/organic compounds (VHCs/VOCs) released by a standard phenolic homologous, thus increasing the favorable characteristics of such inorganic hydraulic-binder brake pads and related technology.
Sanguineti, AlessandroSamela, AlessandroRampinelli, FlavioBottalico, LucaRanza, LuigiRomeo, MarcoBonfanti, Andrea
Lightweight, Wear Resistant, High Thermal Conductivity Metal Matrix Composite Brake Rotors2018-01-187910/5/2018
Aluminum (Al) - silicon carbide (SiC) metal matrix composite (MMC) brake rotors have been investigated for lightweight vehicular applications but have not widely been utilized due to issues with uniformity of distribution of SiC particulates, residual porosity, formation of undesirable phases such as aluminum carbide, and high temperatures incurred during braking that degrade the rotor’s integrity and performance. ATS-MER has overcome these issues with the development of a patented sandwich type structure with wear resistant thin Al-SiC MMC surface layers and a high thermal conductivity aluminum alloy core. Substantial dynamometer and vehicle testing has been performed by a major automobile company with excellent results, including much lower induced temperatures, 96.3 to 99.6% less particulate (dust) generation in comparable testing of cast iron rotors, and almost 10 times the number of maximum cycles possible during testing of cast iron discs. Thus, ATS-MER’s novel Al-SiC MMC brake rotors offer significant environmental benefits of much reduced dust generation and lower CO2 emissions due to lighter weight including unsprung weight, a more comfortable ride, and elimination of the need to replace the rotors over the life of the vehicle. The unique processing technology will be presented along with the current state of development and performance for conventional and electric vehicles.
Bracamonte, LoriWithers, JamesSmith, Thomas
The Factors Governing Corrosion Stiction of Brake Friction Materials to a Gray Cast Iron Disc2018-01-189910/5/2018
Corrosion stiction at the contact interface between a brake friction material and a gray iron disc under the parking brake condition was investigated by evaluating the possible parameters that affect the shear force to detach the corroded interface. Using production brake friction materials, comprising non-steel and low-steel types, corrosion tests were carried out by pressing the brake pad onto the gray iron disc using a clamp at various conditions. Results showed that the shear force to detach the corroded interface tended to increase with applied pressure and corrosion time. On the other hand, porosity, acidity, and hydrophobicity of the friction material did not show a reliable correlation to the stiction force. The poor correlation of the stiction force with the friction material properties indicated that the stiction force was not determined by a single factor but governed by multiple parameters including surface contact areas and inhomogeneity of the ingredients. Microscopic observation of the detached disc surface showed adhered fragments that were removed from the friction material surface, thus shedding light on the possible estimation of the stiction force from the disc area covered by the friction materials. The scattered small areas without corrosion on the gray iron surface, which were well matched with hollow areas on the friction material surface, supported the importance of the contact area information in understanding the poor correlation between the stiction force and of the friction material properties.
Gweon, JaehyunShin, SangheeJang, HoLee, WangyuKim, DooyeonLee, Keeyang
A Study on Trigger of Small Friction Noise in Disc Brake Squeal2018-01-187210/5/2018
Disc brake squeal is caused by flutter of dynamic unstable systems under small disturbance. Therefore the research of small disturbance is very important technical issues for disc brake squeal reduction. The experimental set-up for basic research was developed based on the actual disc brake squeal vibration mode in experiment and its theoretical analysis, which replaces actual caliper and pads to cantilever type pad-caliper. Disc brake squeal depends on the natural frequency of cantilever type pad-caliper, which occurred at 2.7 kHz, 2.0 kHz and 5.3 kHz for each cantilever length L=40 mm, 50 mm and 80 mm in each friction test. In friction tests L=40 mm and 50 mm, cantilever type pad-caliper vibrates with the 1st order bending vibration mode and disc vibrates with the 1st or 2nd order bending vibration mode. In friction test L=80 mm, cantilever type pad-caliper vibrates with the 2nd order bending vibration mode and disc vibrates with the 4th order bending vibration mode. Theoretical analysis is shown here for considering disc brake squeal and its trigger. The vibration modes in each disc brake squeal are not same, but each friction point behaviour per 1 cycle during brake squeal generation is the same oval shape. These simulation results mean the same mechanisms of dynamic energy increase. On the other hand, small friction noise occurred around 1 kHz in this friction test of cantilever length L=80 mm. Then its cantilever type pad-caliper vibrates with the 1st order bending vibration mode but disc vibration amplitude is so small. This small friction noise is considered to be self-excited vibration in friction coefficient dμ/dv<0, which depends on not only friction characteristics but also the natural frequencies of cantilever type pad-caliper and disc. As disc brake squeal is considered to be triggered by small friction noise, disc brake squeal can be reduced by reduction of small friction noise.
Nishiwaki, MasaakiYamamoto, Yukio
Sliding Wear and Friction Studies of Disc/ Pad Materials2018-01-08404/3/2018
Brake disc provides friction force with minimum weight loss on application of brake. The pad material only experiences more wear and friction. Disc and pad materials are selected to give a stable and high coefficient of friction (0.25-0.40). COF is directly proportional to braking force generated and inversely proportional to the stopping distance. The aim of the study is to identify a new material for replacement of pad material in practice. In this study, wear, hardness and friction properties of E glass fiber with epoxy resin and cashew friction dust composite are studied and compared with brake pad material in practice. The hardness was measured using shore hardness tester. The wear and friction was measured using the pin on disc wear testing machine. The pad material was made as pin with cast iron as the disc material for wear studies. The wear studies were conducted for various load conditions and sliding velocities. It was observed that the wear rate increases with increasing load and sliding velocities for all materials. The wear rate in E glass fibre epoxy composite and E glass fiber epoxy composite with cashew friction dust are considerably low when compared with asbestos and semi metallic material. Even at the highest load (10 kg), it does not wear heavily. It can be seen that the COF of E-Glass fibre epoxy composite with Cashew friction dust based material does not varies much. This indicates that E glass fibre epoxy composite with cashew friction dust has a good potential for using it as pad material in automotive application.
Rajendran, R.N, RavikumarS, Madhan KumarTamilarasan, T.R
In-Vehicle Characterization of Wet Clutch Engagement Behaviors in Automatic Transmission Systems2018-01-03954/3/2018
A new generation of a planetary-gear-based automatic transmission system is designed with an increasing number of ratio steps. It requires synchronous operation of one or more wet clutches, to achieve a complex shift event. A missed synchronization results in drive torque disturbance which may be perceived by vehicle occupants as an undesirable shift shock. Accurate knowledge of clutch behaviors in an actual vehicle environment is indispensable for achieving precise clutch controls and reducing shift calibration effort. Wet clutches are routinely evaluated on an industry-standard SAE#2 tester during the clutch design process. While it is a valuable tool for screening relative frictional behaviors, clutch engagement data from a SAE#2 tester do not correlate well with vehicle shift behaviors due to the limited reproducibility of realistic slip, actuator force profiles, and lubrication conditions. Advanced clutch testers with programmable slip and force controller are available for replicating torque phase and inertia phase of shifting. However, it remains a challenge to substantiate bench test data in the absence of actual clutch behaviors observed in a vehicle. This article describes the in-vehicle characterization of wet clutch engagement torque, with a focus on temperature effects during gear ratio changing. Clutch torques are accurately identified based on transmission torque measurements at input and output shafts. The analysis shows that the relationships between actuator force and clutch torque are highly non-linear with respect to transmission oil temperature, demonstrating the importance of in-vehicle clutch characterization for robust shift control. Furthermore, a squeeze film analysis is conducted to provide physical insight into clutch behaviors during torque transfer phase of shifting, where Coulomb’s linear friction model is not applicable.
Haria, HiralPietron, Gregory M.Meyer, JasonFujii, YujiWang, PengchuanKatopodes, Nikolaos
Objective Method to Quantify Ecological Toxicity between Friction Materials2017-01-24959/17/2017
California and Washington recently passed legislation to limit certain constituents in brake pad friction materials. As part of the California (CA) legislation enacted in 2010, brake pad manufacturers need to perform an alternative assessment to identify potentially safer environmental and toxicological choices for future friction material production. Copper, chromium VI-salts, lead, cadmium, mercury, and other compounds have been identified as potentially unsafe to the environment. This paper contains the methodology behind an objective and comprehensive alternative assessment to quantify the ecological impact of friction materials. Utilizing raw material specific Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) numbers and their associated toxicological reference values (TRVs), this newly defined method estimates the total toxicological impact of finished friction materials on both the environment and on a human carcinogenic level to allow the manufacturer to screen greener alternatives. Utilizing chemical specific TRVs such as the lethal concentration 50% (LC50), median effective concentration 50% (EC50), and the median effective reproductive concentration 50% (ErC50), this method quantifies ecological impact characteristics of brake pad friction material. In the same regard, the carcinogenic properties of each chemical are evaluated, placed into groupings based on their carcinogenic potential as evaluated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and are utilized to generate comparative carcinogenic ratings. The methodology is best utilized as a relative comparison between multiple uncompressed friction formulations in order to create greener friction material for the future.
Visser, Andrew M.Severnak, Scott
Disc Pad Physical Properties vs. Porosity: The Question of Compressibility as an Intrinsic Physical Property05-11-01-00079/17/2017
Disc pad physical properties are believed to be important in controlling brake friction, wear and squeal. Thus these properties are carefully measured during and after manufacturing for quality assurance. For a given formulation, disc pad porosity is reported to affect friction, wear and squeal. This investigation was undertaken to find out how porosity changes affect pad natural frequencies, dynamic modulus, hardness and compressibility for a low-copper formulation and a copper-free formulation, both without underlayer, without scorching and without noise shims. Pad natural frequencies, modulus and hardness all continuously decrease with increasing porosity. When pad compressibility is measured by compressing several times as recommended and practiced, the pad surface hardness is found to increase while pad natural frequencies and modulus remain essentially unchanged. However, there is no consistent pattern in compressibility change with increasing porosity, and thus a question arises on the validity of compressibility measurement as an intrinsic physical property measurement. Also after 12-months of ageing at room temperature, all the properties are found to change significantly, but property change trends with increasing porosity remain the same except for compressibility. A large number of samples were prepared and measured. The results are presented and discussed.
Sriwiboon, MeechaiTiempan, NiponKaewlob, Kritsana
Sizing Next Generation High Performance Brake Systems with Copper Free Linings2017-01-25329/17/2017
The high performance brake systems of today are usually in a delicate balance - walking the fine line between being overpowered by some of the most potent powertrains, some of the grippiest tires, and some of the most demanding race tracks that the automotive world has ever seen - and saddling the vehicle with excess kilograms of unsprung mass with oversized brakes, forcing significant compromises in drivability with oversized tires and wheels. Brake system design for high performance vehicles has often relied on a very deep understanding of friction material performance (friction, wear, and compressibility) in race track conditions, with sufficient knowledge to enable this razor’s edge design. With significant restrictions in copper content of automotive brake linings becoming reality in California and Washington State in 2021, and a more or less complete phase-out of copper in linings occurring in 2024, one of the key ingredients of high performance linings - critical for heat transfer, high temperature tribofilms, and medium to high temperature friction - can no longer be used. This paper looks at dynamometer-based performance data from a new generation of copper-free high performance brake linings, and makes comparisons where appropriate to a current copper-containing lining. Following brake system sizing methodologies (some of which have been described in literature previously, and some of which are new and generate improved correlation to race track operation), the brake system of a case study high performance vehicle is reviewed for the impact that the copper free linings has on it. Data are generated using analysis tools, with correlation to vehicle test results. It will be shown that meeting the demands of race track usage with copper-free lining materials is possible, but that it will affect brake system design in some cases.
Antanaitis, David B.Shenberger, MichaelVotteler, Max
Development of Noise Propensity Index (NPI) for Robust Brake Friction2017-01-25299/17/2017
A semi-empirical index to evaluate the noise propensity of brake friction materials is introduced. The noise propensity index (NPI) is based on the ratio of surface and matrix stiffness of the friction material, fraction of high-pressure contact plateaus on the sliding surface, and standard deviation of the surface stiffness of the friction material that affect the amplitude and frequency of the stick-slip oscillation. The correlation between noise occurrence and NPI was examined using various brake linings for commercial vehicles. The results obtained from reduced-scale noise dynamometer and vehicle tests indicated that NPI is well correlated with noise propensity. The analysis of the stick-slip profiles also indicated that the surface property affects the amplitude of friction oscillation, while the mechanical property of the friction material influences the propagation of friction oscillation after the onset of vibration. An additional case study for noise reduction was carried out using commercial brake friction materials before and after the modification of NPI. The results of the case study based on in-vehicle noise tests indicate that a robust friction material can be designed by reducing the stiffness ratio and large contact plateaus on the sliding surface of brake friction materials.
Cho, Jae SeolJeong, JongYunKim, Hyoung WooLee, Hwa SunPark, Yang WooLim, JunghwanKim, YoonjaeKim, JinwooJoo, Byung SooJang, Ho
A Comparison of Braking Behavior between an IC Engine and Pure Electric Vehicle in Los Angeles City Driving Conditions2017-01-25189/17/2017
The Los Angeles City Traffic Brake Test Schedule has been an established procedure used almost universally for generations by vehicle manufacturers to evaluate and validate braking systems for the attributes of NVH and brake wear behavior. The Los Angeles driving route, commonly known as the Los Angeles City Traffic Test (LACT), has long been considered an effective and “quasi” extreme set of real world driving conditions representative of the US passenger vehicle market and have been covered in other analysis including SAE Technical Paper 2002-01-2600 [1] The performance of a vehicle, relative to braking, in LACT conditions is typically influenced by basic vehicle and brake system attributes including the ratios of vehicle mass to brake sizing attributes, friction material selection, and the acceleration, drag, and cooling behavior of the vehicle. The general character of the LACT Route and typical driving behavior establishes an energy input to the braking system that must be managed by the chosen set of brake components overlaid to a set of vehicle attributes. Brake system sizing has generally converged on typical sizing choices based on market forces and the typicality of vehicles in their associated segment. As a result, the general sizing of brakes systems tends to revert to a mean within a segment. Tradeoffs between, noise, wear, dust and other performance attributes are made with the selection of the friction material. Where, by example, a brake designer may tradeoff the attributes of higher dust, lower lining and rotor life in LACT for higher performance in extreme fade testing to achieve a desired market differentiation. The need for the work presented is motivated by the relatively recent entry to the market of pure electric vehicles. Many of the Pure EV’s offer significant capability to employ regenerative braking, which allows the conversion of vehicle kinetic energy to electrical energy. Therefore, the potential exists to significantly affect the amount of energy input to a vehicle’s friction braking system. As the performance in a LACT is highly dependent on the energy input the brake system must manage, it is important to objectively understand how this may change with the contribution of regenerative braking. If it is determined that the energy input to the friction brake system is significantly different in pure EV’s, then the potential exists to design fundamental brake system attributes differently with the potential to realize an improved totality of associated metrics by altering many of the traditional tradeoff balances commonly constraining brake system designers. This paper will provide an analysis by comparison between an exemplar IC engine based vehicle and a pure electric vehicle during a typical “day in Los Angeles”. The paper will provide an assessment of how regenerative braking influences the energy the brake system must manage, as well as any changes to the usage profile of the brake system in these driving conditions. Finally, this paper will offer some thoughts on how this could affect future design of brake systems of pure electric vehicles
Hall, Thomas J.
Studies on Friction Mechanism of NAO Brake-Pads Containing Potassium Titanate Powder as a Theme Ingredient05-11-01-00069/17/2017
Potassium titanate (KT) fibers/whiskers are used as a functional filler for partial replacement of asbestos in NAO friction materials (FMs). Based on little information reported in open literature; its exact role is not well defined since some papers claim it as the booster for resistance to fade (FR), or wear (WR) and sometimes as damper for friction fluctuations. Interestingly, KT fibers and whiskers (but not powder) are proved as carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). However, hardly any efforts are reported on exploration of influence of KT powder and its optimum amount in NAO FMs (realistic composites) in the literature. Hence a series of five realistic multi-ingredient compositions in the form of brake-pads with similar parent composition but varying in the content of KT powder from 0 to 15 wt% (in the steps of 3) were developed. These composites were characterized for physical, mechanical, chemical and tribological performance. Composites were tribo-evaluated on reduced scale prototype (RSP) as well as on full scale brake inertia dynamometer by following ECE R90 and Japanese Automobile Standards (JASO C 406) testing procedure respectively. Optimum content of KT powder was evaluated by multiple objective optimization on the basis of ratio analysis’ (MOORA) method on the basis of several performance parameters such as performance µ, fade µ, recovery µ, % fade ratio, % recovery ratio, wear resistance etc. The friction and wear mechanisms were studies in details based on worn surface analysis. It was concluded that increase in KT amount played important role in improving wear and fade performance. With increase in amount of KT powder, most of the properties improved. Overall 12% KT powder shows best performance.
Mahale, VishalBijwe, JayashreeSinha, Sujeet
Brake System Performance at Higher Mileage2017-01-25029/17/2017
The purchase of a new automobile is unquestionably a significant investment for most customers, and with this recognition, comes a correspondingly significant expectation for quality and reliability. Amongst automotive systems -when it comes to considerations of reliability - the brakes (perhaps along with the tires) occupy a rarified position of being located in a harsh environment, subjected to continuous wear throughout their use, and are critical to the safe performance of the vehicle. Maintenance of the brake system is therefore a fact of life for most drivers - something that almost everyone must do, yet given the potentially considerable expense, it is something that of great benefit to minimize. Additionally, the performance of the brake system (like the tires) can change over the useful life of the components, realized in the form of changing friction levels, fluid consumption, and drag at a brake corner level, and realized to the driver in the form of changing pedal effort, travel, response time, and fuel economy. Most studies of brake system performance, and most regulatory requirements that affect the design of the brake system, focus on the “near-new” condition. This is not accidental, the simple fact is that it is extremely difficult, expensive, and time consuming to realistically accelerate wear of brake components so that performance can be assessed in a worn condition. On a well-designed brake system, components in the hands of an average customer can last 5-10 years before wear out occurs, meaning that any practical study of wear effects must be greatly accelerated to occur within a typical vehicle development timeline. Environmental exposure involves many complex and time-dependent chemical reactions, which puts an upper limit on how much simulated field exposure can be accelerated. The present study is based primarily on evaluation of brake corner performance after vehicle-level durability test exposure. Brake corners from a diverse selection of vehicles (including two hybrid vehicle examples) were retrieved from end-of test vehicles that had received the structural equivalent of 160,000 km of test exposure, along with 10 years of simulated corrosion exposure, and then subjected to performance and residual drag tests. To supplement the findings, lab-based studies of brake hardware with simulated 50% worn use and corrosion exposure are also referenced. Brake corner performance including apparent friction level, fluid consumption, drag, torque variation, and torque hysteresis were studied and related to observations of the physical condition of the parts. The effect of the measured brake corner level performance was then accounted for at a vehicle level in the form of pedal feel, fuel economy, and lining life for representative case studies.
Antanaitis, David B.Robere, Matthew
The Effect of Commercial Vehicle Head-Up Display Reminding System on Driving Safety in Mountainous Area2017-01-25009/17/2017
Head-up Display (HUD) system can avoid drivers’ distraction on dashboard and effectively reduce collisions caused by emergency events, which is gradually being realized by researchers around the world. However, the current HUD only displays information like speed, fuel consumption, other information like acceleration and braking can’t be displayed yet. This research will use the indicator symbol‘s color and position change to remind drivers to brake or accelerate. Drivers can do driving operation timely and accurately. The system has the advantages of safety, intuition and real-time. The vehicle safe speed is calculated according to the road parameters, like adhesion coefficient and slope, and vehicle parameters, such as vehicle mass and centroid. Then, the appropriate braking operations are obtained by combining the vehicle driving state. The braking information is corresponded to the color and position change of the indicator symbol to prompt the drivers by the HUD interface. At the same time, under different driving conditions, experiments will be carried out to find out the difference of driver’s braking operations when there is braking information presentation or there is not. The effects of different braking operations on driving safety performance will be evaluated. Compared with the condition of no braking information presentation, braking information presentation can make the start braking time ahead of schedule. In addition, the emergency braking situation will be reduced appropriately. The results show that the braking information presentation based on the HUD system has significant effects on improving driving safety.
Huang, BoXia, WanyangTan, GangfengXiao, LongjieWang, Zongsong
Combined Spatter and Immersion Type Oil Cooling System for Multi Disc Wet Clutch Transmission in Tractors2017-28-19767/10/2017
The utility of tractors in India has grown and is growing. Other than in agricultural area, it finds use in non-agricultural and construction/ earthmoving applications like loaders, dozers, power source, etc. The tractors that are subjected to heavy duty cycles are mostly with conventional dry type clutches. These types of dry clutch when operated in heavy application generate large amount of heat within shorter period of time on the surface of friction discs. This increase in disc surface temperature weakens the friction material property & bonding element leading to deterioration and decreasing the life of clutch. This curtails the clutch life extensively and is a big challenge to farmers and tractor users. The frequent clutch failures not only increases the operating cost, but also the servicing of clutches in the tractor fitted with heavy attachments leads to a higher downtime and service cost. To overcome this challenge, an innovative solution in the oil spatter concept has been evolved to provide active circulation of oil to the multi disc wet clutch friction discs while in engaged conditions. The system is designed in such a way that it cut-off the oil flow in to the clutch unit while clutch is disengaged. This oil spatter system evenly carries away the heat generated across friction & steel disc surface through the groove patterns in the discs. This combined spatter and immersion type oil cooling provides improved heat removal and significantly reduces the drag torque and reduces power loss. This oil spatter clutch system will provide a fit and forget trouble free clutch system to farmers with significantly higher ROI.
Narayana Rao, Suresh Kumar
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