Browse Topic: Reformulated gasoline

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Study of Performance and Emission Characteristics of Propan-2-ol and Gasoline Fuel Blends in an Unmodified Spark Ignition Engine2019-01-07934/2/2019
In view of the rapid depletion, increasing prices and uneven distribution of conventional petroleum fuels; the interest in the use of alternative fuels has increased exponentially. Fuels such as biodiesel & alcohol have been evaluated both at experimental and commercial scale due to improved emission characteristics as compared to conventional fuels. Alcohols are oxygenated and result in improving the engine performance. As a blend with conventional gasoline, the alcohols enhance the premixed and diffusive combustion phase which improves the combustion efficiency. The present investigation evaluates studies on stability and homogeneity along with physicochemical properties like density, viscosity, calorific value, copper-strip corrosion and solubility at room temperature of Propan-2-ol and gasoline blends. Comprehensive engine trials on unmodified petrol engine fuelled with blends of Propan-2-ol and gasoline blends in the proportions of 5, 10, 15 and 20% by volume have been conducted. The performance characteristics e.g. brake-specific energy consumption, brake thermal efficiency and emissions characteristics such as NOX, CO and HC were studied and analyzed to evaluate the optimum alcohol/fuel blend for the petrol engine. The result yielded enhanced combustion and performance characteristics as compared to gasoline with reduced Carbon monoxide and un-burnt hydrocarbon emissions. However, there was an increase in the oxides of nitrogen emissions.
Kumar, Naveen, Jain, Shikhar, Bagla, Aakriti, Sharma, Shivalika, Tomar, Mukul
Regulation vs. Field Data: Managing Fuel Quality2019-26-01571/9/2019
Unlike in the aviation and marine sector, fuel specification in the on-road transportation sector are varied depending on the countries. Globally, the countries are going towards ultra-low sulfur fuels. In developed countries including in EU and the U.S., ultra-low sulfur fuels have been used since 2005-2006. In Asia, Japan lead the region with less than 10 ppm sulfur fuels introduced into the market in January 2005. More than a decade later, fuels with high sulfur content are still sold in most countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Pacific. Facing pressure from environmentalists, these countries are focusing on sulfur reduction in their conventional fuels, along with improvement in their conventional fuels, along with improvement in their vehicle emission standards. On the other hand, in more advanced countries where they already have the cleanest possible conventional fuels, alternative fuels vehicles including electric vehicles are getting more attentions. Governments of developing countries are setting higher fuel quality standards to enable the implementation of more stringent vehicle emission standards. However, lack of fuel quality monitoring system in those countries results in the use of off-spec fuels. SGS worldwide market data delivers many examples. In the Philippines, 83% of premium plus gasoline samples have RON of 93 - 96.5 against the minimum requirement of 97 in the period of 2011-2017. Another example: 11.28 vol.% of methanol was found in a gasoline sample in 2016-2017 in the Philippines despite the specifications do not allow methanol to be present. One more example from Pakistan: the Manganese presence in all gasoline samples with concentration from 0.1 to 104 mg/kg in 2003-2017. Prolonged use of off-spec fuels will deteriorate exhaust emissions, damage the vehicles and worsen air quality. Therefore, a good understanding of fuel specifications and implementation of a good fuel quality monitoring system are needed to avoid severe productivity loss due to stalled vehicles on the road
Nurafiatin, Lucky
Diminishing Benefits of Federal Reformulated Gasoline (RFG) Compared to Conventional Gasoline (CG)04-12-01-000112/20/2018
The Federal reformulated gasoline (RFG) program originated with the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments to address high ozone and air toxics levels in major urban areas. These areas include portions of 17 states and represent approximately 30% of the total U.S. gasoline volume. Initially, formulation changes were limited to addition of oxygen and reductions in benzene and fuel Reid vapor pressure (RVP) levels. These reformulations were intended to meet minimum emissions reduction targets for volatile organic compounds (VOCs), air toxics, and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) when compared to a 1990 baseline gasoline in a “1990 technology” vehicle fleet. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) developed two computational models, the Simple Model in 1995 and the Complex Model in 1998, for use in demonstrating compliance with the regulations. This article reviews the derivation and evolution of the RFG program. Initially, RFG’s emissions reduction benefits compared to conventional gasoline (CG) resulted primarily from differences in fuel sulfur levels, benzene content, and RVP. However, due to other regulatory changes over the past two decades, the compositions of CG and RFG have nearly converged. Inserting annual average gasoline properties into the Complex Model shows that RFG’s predicted NOx and toxics reduction benefits have largely disappeared, while a VOC reduction benefit persists. This benefit results from CG’s higher summertime vapor pressure, due to the 1 psi RVP increase that is allowed for CG containing 10 vol.% ethanol. Due to fleet turnover and introduction of low-emitting, advanced technology vehicles, fleet-wide vehicle emissions have decreased dramatically over the past 20 years. Considering this, along with the general erosion of RFG’s emissions reduction benefits, it is unlikely that RFG provides any demonstrable air quality benefit compared to CG today. RFG’s residual VOC benefit likely could be maintained by application of simpler RVP controls, rather than by continuation of the outdated RFG program.
Hoekman, S. Kent, Leland, Amber, Bishop, Gary
Low-temperature combustion ready for prime time?17AUTP05_035/1/2017
At SAE's High-Efficiency IC Engines Symposium, Delphi said its new, third-generation GDCI is promising, but even LTC proponents said challenges remain. Powertrain experts and fuel-industry sources speaking at the recent SAE High-Efficiency IC Engines symposium in Detroit mutually supported the assertion that liquid fuels will be the dominant light-vehicle transportation energy source through the middle of this century. So take that, batteries. But if reality doesn't exactly align with the latest breathless reveal of a 1000-hp battery-electric vehicle, where does that leave powertrain research and development? The global drive for reduced emissions and reduced fuel consumption hasn't abated-regardless of whether the United States decides it no longer needs to participate in the fad-so it appears the continued advance of internal-combustion engines is in order.
Costlow, Terry, Visnic, Bill
Musclecar Godzilla: Dodge Reveals 840-hp Challenger SRT Demon17AUTP05_125/1/2017
After months of teasing and a high-profile tie-in with the Fast & Furious film franchise, at the New York auto show FCA's Dodge division revealed its 2018 Challenger SRT Demon, a drag racer-in-street-clothes featuring an 840-hp variant of the now-famous 6.2-L supercharged OHV V-8 that the company boldly claimed makes the Challenger Demon the quickest production car in the world. Revealing the Demon at an event on the eve of the 2017 New York auto show, Tim Kuniskis, head of passenger cars- Dodge, SRT, Chrysler and FIAT, for FCA North America, catalogued the Demon's list of claimed firsts or record-setting accomplishments, most delivered by the car's heavily-revised Hemi V8. Kuniskis said the Demon is the world's fastest production vehicle to accelerate through the quarter mile, doing so in 9.65 s at a trap speed of 140 mph (225 km/h); the industry-standard metric of 0-60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration is dispatched in 2.3 s, which he claimed also is the world's best, although that figure is bound to be disputed.
Visnic, Bill
A Study on Microbial Contamination of Alcohol-Blended Unleaded Gasoline2016-01-225910/17/2016
The fuel supply chain faces challenges associated with microbial contamination symptoms. Microbial growth is an issue usually known to be associated with middle distillate fuels and biodiesel, however, incidents where microbial populations have been isolated from unleaded gasoline storage tanks have also been recently reported. Alcohols are employed as gasoline components and the use of these oxygenates is rising, especially ethanol, which can be a renewable alternative to gasoline, as well. Despite their alleged disinfectant properties, a number of field observations suggests that biodeterioration could be a potential issue in fuel systems handling ethanol-blended gasoline. For this reason, in this study, the effect of alcohols on microbial proliferation in unleaded gasoline fuel was assessed. Ethanol (EtOH), iso-propyl alcohol (IPA) and tert-butyl-alcohol (TBA) were evaluated as examples of alcohols utilized in gasoline as oxygenates. Two different commercial grades of unleaded gasoline were employed in the study, namely a standard (U) and a high octane grade (SU) according to European market nomenclature. The gasoline samples were blended with EtOH, IPA and TBA at various mixing ratios, the resulting blends were contaminated with uncharacterized "bottoms-water" of known microbial activity and the resulting microcosms were stored for a certain period of time. During storage the microbial growth was monitored by utilizing a quantitative microbiological method and alterations in some quality parameters of the stored fuel blends were also examined.
Dodos, George S., Tsesmeli, Chrysovalanti E., Zannikos, Fanourios
Blending Octane Evaluation of Fuel Ethers: A Literature Review2016-01-08834/5/2016
A thorough bibliographic survey was carried out to collect literature-available information about blending octane numbers (BONs) of most widely used ethers by the refining industry (mainly MTBE and ETBE). The intention was to review the publicly reported BONs values, to suggest the most appropriate figures for future reference, while also understanding the causes of the differences. Summary tables feature all BON values, either explicitly reported in literature or calculated based on experimental results. Due to synergistic intermolecular interactions with hydrocarbons, BONs typically depend on base stock composition. The octane gain tends to grow as the paraffin content in the base stock increases. Moreover BONs tend to decrease as the octane numbers (ON) of the base stock increase. From a refining industry practical utilization viewpoint, the relevant BONs to be considered should logically be those referring to a typical on-spec gasoline composition (relevant “cluster”), while atypical base stock formulations add a wider scientific dimension. The average values presented in this review have been obtained by normalizing the cluster sub-set of literature-featured blending Octane Numbers of the four ethers. Such figures should be considered as the most reliable “typical” BONs value, to be used as general reference when comparing different octane enhancers alternatives. The suggested most appropriate values are 116.5 BRON and 102.1 BMON for MTBE, 118.8 BRON and 103.3 BMON for ETBE, 110.0 BRON and 99.1 BMON for TAME.
Mirabella, Walter, Avella, Francesco, Di Girolamo, Marco, Abbott, Tim, Busch, Oliver
Onboard Gasoline Separation for Improved Vehicle Efficiency2014-01-12004/1/2014
ExxonMobil, Corning and Toyota have collaborated on an Onboard Separation System (OBS) to improve gasoline engine efficiency and performance. OBS is a membrane based process that separates gasoline into higher and lower octane fractions, allowing optimal use of fuel components based on engine requirements. The novel polymer-ceramic composite monolith membrane has been demonstrated to be stable to E10 gasoline, while typically providing 20% yield of ∼100 RON product when using RUL 92 RON gasoline. The OBS system makes use of wasted exhaust energy to effect the fuel separation and provides a simple and reliable means for managing the separated fuels that has been demonstrated using several generations of dual fuel test vehicles. Potential applications include downsizing to increase fuel economy by ∼10% while maintaining performance, and with turbocharging to improve knock resistance.
Partridge, Randall D., Weissman, Walter, Ueda, Takanori, Iwashita, Yoshihiro, Johnson, Paul, Kellogg, George
Study on Properties and Performances of Methyl 2-Butoxyethyl Carbonate as a Clean Diesel Fuel Additive2013-01-269510/14/2013
In this paper, a new oxygenate methyl 2-butoxyethyl carbonate was chemically synthesized and structurally identified. The effects of the oxygenate as an additive on diesel fuel properties were investigated. Accompanying the increase in volumetric content of the oxygenate in diesel fuel, kinematic viscosity decreases slightly, smoke point increases substantially, flash point goes up a little, solidifying point declines remarkably linearly and there is no copper corrosion emerging during the experiment. The test results of a single cylinder, DI diesel engine burning diesel fuels containing 15%(v) and 25%(v) of the oxygenate exhibited that under 1600rpm, CO can be reduced by the maximum of 60.0%, smoke can be lessened by 57.1%∼87.3% and 57.1%∼91.2% respectively. At 2000rpm, CO can be reduced respectively by the maximum of 50.0% and 87.5%, smoke can be lessened by 9.1%∼64.1% and 33.3%∼69.6% respectively. However, NOx was observed to have increased by 8.5% to 20.9% during all the experiment. When fueled with the oxygenate, engine in-cylinder peak pressure increases a little and ignition delay becomes shorter or keeps unchanged. Engine heat release rate rises remarkably during the premixed combustion and goes up slightly in the diffusion combustion.
Guo, Hejun, Zeng, Qingping, Su, Bin, Zhou, Youjie
Study of Ether Group Effects on Physicochemical Properties of Cottonseed Oil Ether Monoesters as Novel Biodiesels2013-01-260110/14/2013
Three cottonseed oil ether monoesters were synthesized and structurally identified and they are ethylene glycol methyl ether cottonseed oil monoester, di-ethylene glycol methyl ether cottonseed oil monoester and tri-ethylene glycol methyl ether cottonseed oil monoester. Investigation was made on the effect of ether group number on physicochemical properties of the cottonseed oil ether monoesters. The results showed that density, kinematic viscosity, smoke point, and solidifying point increase linearly with their ether group number in certain relationships. Cetane number is enhanced in a multinomial function whereas heat value decreases linearly with ether group number. When the cottonseed oil ether monoesters were respectively added to the 0# diesel fuel at volumetric content level of 10%(v) and 50%(v), certain regularities were obtained of the properties changing with ether group number. In addition, the influencing regularities of volumetric content of the cottonseed oil ether monoesters on the fuel properties were also studied when the ether monoesters are used as diesel fuel additives.
Guo, Hejun, Wang, Rudong, Su, Junzuo, Su, Bin
Superheated Sprays of Alternative Fuels for Direct Injection Engines2012-01-12614/16/2012
Alternative and oxygenated fuels are nowadays being studied in order to increase engine efficiency and reduce exhaust emissions and also to limit the automotive industry's economical dependency from crude oil. These fuels are considered more ecological compared to hydrocarbons because they are obtained using renewable sources. Fuels like anhydrous/hydrous ethanol, methanol or alcohol/gasoline blends which are injected in liquid form must vaporize quickly, especially in direct injection engines, therefore their volatility is a very important factor and strongly depends on thermodynamic conditions and chemical properties. When a multi-component fuel blend is injected into a low pressure environment below its saturation pressure, a rapid boiling of the most volatile component triggers a thermodynamic atomization mechanism. These kinds of sprays show smaller droplets and lower penetration compared to mechanical break up. The prediction of vapor liquid equilibrium is very important when different components are blended to form a fuel, especially dealing with flash boiling applications and non ideal mixtures like alcohol/hydrocarbons. This work presents a combined 1D/3D numerical modeling of fuel injection processes under superheated conditions involving different single and multi-component hydrocarbons and alternative fuels for automotive applications, such as ethanol, methanol and alcohol/gasoline blends. Primary break up through multi-hole injectors is affected by phase change within the nozzle of the fuel blend due to flash boiling. Particular attention must be given to the thermo-physics description of the fuel properties, since the vaporization process is a key in liquid fuel injections and mixture formation. The vapor pressures of the partial components are calculated using the Peng-Robinson equation of state and the non ideal phase equilibrium of alcohol/hydrocarbon mixtures is modeled using activity coefficients. An Homogeneous Relaxation Model (HRM) is adopted to model the thermodynamic instability of the fuel within a 1D nozzle flow model. 1D simulation results, such as droplet size distribution, are used to define initial conditions for 3D Lagrangian spray simulations performed by using a specific evaporation model, designed to reproduce the vaporization rate from superheated droplets.
Negro, Sergio, Brusiani, Federico, Bianchi, Gian Marco
Determination Of Mixture Of Methanol And Ethanol Blends In Gasoline Fuels Using A Miniaturized NIR Flex Fuel Sensor2011-01-19888/30/2011
Based on their 25 world-wide years experience in refining and fuel formulation using Near Infrared technology, the SP3H team has developed an innovative and miniaturized optical fuel quality sensor. The sensor output is based on an HCP matrix (HydroCarbon Profilers) and provides information on the fine chemistry of fuels such as aromatics, olefins, isoparaffins and oxygenates content and information related to the lengths of the Carbon-Carbon Chain. The goal of this study is to answer the need for new flex-fuel sensors able to provide the rate and the type of oxygenates used in different mixtures of binary and ternary blends of methanol, ethanol and gasoline for the emerging markets. This paper presents the results of the models and the accuracy of the optical sensor for the determination and prediction of Methanol-Ethanol-gasoline mixtures based on the HCP approach.
Lunati, Alain, Galtier, Oswin
Test and Control of Fuel Injector Deposits in Direct Injected Spark Ignition Vehicles2009-01-264111/2/2009
With the wider use of Direct Injection Spark Ignition (DISI) vehicles in the marketplace, a program was conducted to develop a short-duration fuel injector fouling test. Once a specific driving cycle and base fuel combination was found to produce a significant increase in Long Term Fuel Trim (LTFT), several Deposit Control Additive (DCA) technologies were evaluated for their ability to keep the direct gasoline injectors clean. The increase in LTFT is indicative of fuel injector fouling and a corresponding decrease in flow through them. The test vehicles for this program were a 2008 General Motors Pontiac Solstice GXP equipped with a DISI 2.0 liter turbocharged I-4 and a 2008 Audi A4 equipped with a DISI 3.2 liter V-6 engine. A proprietary base fuel formulated to mimic a U.S. EPA 65th percentile fuel was tested to assess its deposit forming tendencies. As a zero percent ethanol (E0) base fuel without a Deposit Control Additive (DCA), it is capable of generating 20% shifts in LTFT in vehicles on a Chassis Dynamometer (CD) driving a specific cycle for forty-eight hours. Work was also done in conventional Regular Unleaded (RUL) gasoline and Reformulated Gasoline (RFG) containing 10% ethanol (E10) with various DCAs to determine their effect on DISI fuel injector deposit formation. When the base fuel was additized with a DCA previously shown to keep earlier design DISI injector deposits to a minimum, a 90% reduction in LTFT shift versus the base fuel was achieved. Other commercial DCAs were also tested in the Solstice operating on the base fuel. Their performance was found to range from very good to poor.
DuMont, Richard J., Evans, Joel A., Feist, Dennis P., Studzinski, William M., Cushing, Timothy J.
Effect of Improving the Gasoline Fuel Quality on Exhaust Emissions from in-use Vehicles - An Experimental Study2009-26-00161/21/2009
In India, two and three-wheelers constitute about 70% of the total in-use vehicle population and consume about 2/3rd of the total gasoline, rest of the gasoline being consumed primarily by the passenger cars. This paper presents the findings of an experimental study carried out on in-use gasoline vehicles, including two and three- wheelers and passenger cars. The gasoline fuels used for the study were equivalent to Euro-II, Euro-III and Euro-IV fuel quality specifications. The study analyzes the effect of improving the gasoline fuel quality on exhaust emissions from in-use vehicles.
Jain, A. K., Singh, Y., Singh, S. P., Pathak, S., Singal, S. K.
Parametric Analysis of Catalytic Converter Plugging Caused by Manganese-Based Gasoline Additives2007-01-10704/16/2007
A parametric analysis, based on engine dynamometer tests, was performed to evaluate the influence of exhaust gas temperature, catalyst cell density, exhaust system configuration and the presence of the manganese fuel additive methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) in motor fuel on catalytic converter deposits and plugging. Analysis of catalytic converter deposits revealed they consisted mainly of trimanganese tetroxide (Mn3O4), with traces of Ca, P, and Zn. Deposits on catalysts from customer vehicles from Canada, where MMT was known to be in the majority of gasoline in the 1999-2005 timeframe, and from road test vehicles were virtually identical to the catalyst deposits from the engine dynamometer tests. The engine dynamometer tests were conducted at three different exhaust gas temperatures (600° C, 715° C and 805°C), using two different catalyst cell densities (400 and 600 cells per square inch), and five different angles of incidence of the exhaust gas to the converter inlet surface (30°, 45°, 60°, 75° and 90°). These studies demonstrated that each of those three parameters has a significant influence on catalyst plugging by MMT. Higher cell density and close-coupled catalyst placement are two of the key technologies utilized to meet more stringent exhaust emissions standards that have been, or are being, enacted in many countries. The results demonstrate that these key emission control technologies are more susceptible to plugging from MMT.
Shimizu, Chiharu, Ohtaka, Yoshiyuki
Investigations of Impact of the Ethanol Content on Exhaust Gases, Fuel Evaporative Emissions, High-temperature Driveability, and Materials for Fuel Supply System Parts of Gasoline Vehicles2005-01-371010/24/2005
In order to investigate the impact of the Ethanol content on existing domestic Gasoline vehicles, we conducted an exhaust gases test, a fuel evaporative emissions test, a high-temperature driveability test, and a material impact test. As a result, no safety problems occurred in the metal material impact test at an Ethanol content of 3% or less. In the exhaust gases test, the fuel evaporative emissions test, and the high-temperature driveability test, no problems occurred at an Ethanol content of 3% or less. Based on these results and discussions conducted by the fuel policy subcommittee of the advisory committee for natural resources and energy survey, it was concluded that the Ethanol content in Gasoline must be 3% or less and the oxygenate (alcohol etc.) content must be limited to a value corresponding to a total oxygen content of 1.3% or less. The results obtained by this study were reflected in the Japanese Gasoline compulsory quality regulations.
Soma, Seiichi, Nagai, Keiichi, Morita, Kenji, Sugiyama, Gen, Seko, Toshiyuki
The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles: A New Approach to Helping Countries Achieve Environmental Sustainability in The Transportation Sector2005-01-05384/11/2005
Many developing countries experience serious air pollution, especially in their urban centers, and emission sources often include the transportation sector. Several countries still use leaded gasoline and/or high sulfur fuels, which impair vehicle emission controls or prevent their use. The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) was created at the United Nations to help developing countries eliminate lead in gasoline, phase down fuel sulfur and concurrently introduce cleaner vehicles as a way to reduce emissions. The PCFV was launched at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in September 2002 as a public-private collaborative effort designed to help developing countries achieve greater progress towards their air quality goals. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) hosts the partnership Clearinghouse, and its partners consist of governments, industry, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This paper will describe the PCFV approach to helping developing countries advance their policy objectives on cleaner fuels and vehicles. The paper will highlight the critical role and contributions of the auto and oil industries and their respective trade associations. The trade associations, in particular, will be shown to be instrumental to the functioning of such a partnership by facilitating and enabling their members' involvement. While not generally considered public policy experts, industry partners are enabling the transfer of technical knowledge and practical insights into the development of effective public policy strategies, which can mean the difference between success and failure for such initiatives while maximizing the use of available resources.
Lev-On, Miriam, Shapiro, Ellen, Cox, Rob
Effect of Alcohol Blended Fuels on the Emissions and Field Performance of Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engine Powered Two Wheelers2005-26-0341/19/2005
Field trials were conducted on two-stroke engine powered two-wheelers with 5%, 10 % ethanol and 3 % methanol. The performance and emissions of vehicles operating on these fuels were compared to those with neat gasoline up to 20,000 km. No significant change in fuel economy was observed with 5 % ethanol and 3 % methanol, however about 1.1 % loss was observed with 10 % ethanol. Emission test conducted after mileage build-up showed reduction of carbon monoxide (CO) with 5 % and 10 % ethanol, while increase of CO was observed with 3% methanol. Total hydrocarbon emissions increased on mileage build-up with all the test fuels. Merit rating of engine components after 20,000 km indicated that the ratings were better for 5 % ethanol blended gasoline. Startability and drivability problems were observed with 3% methanol after completing 10,000 km. A dedicated scooter and four stroke engine powered motorcycle were used for measuring instantaneous toxic emissions and fuel economy with neat gasoline and its blend with 5%, 10% and 20% ethanol. The toxic emission results indicated that there was no significant change in formaldehyde emissions, whereas acetaldehyde increased with all the ethanol blends in two stroke two wheeler. Acetone and Benzaldehyde emissions decreased with all the blended fuels in two stroke two wheelers. In case of four-stroke engine powered motorcycle, there was no change in formaldehyde emissions, decrease of Crotonaldehyde and Benzaldehyde emissions were observed with different alcohol blends. There was a significant reduction in CO and THC emissions, and enhanced fuel economy was observed with 5% and 10% ethanol blends.
Subramanian, M., Setia, A. K., Kanal, P. C., Pal, N. K., Nandi, S., Malhotra, R. K.
FUEL ANTI-ADULTERATION MEASURES - AN OVERVIEW2004-28-00571/16/2004
Fuel adulteration is a big menace in India. It not only affects the engine components but also hampers the country economy. The main driving force for this malpractice is the difference in the pricing of various hydrocarbon products. Till recently, PDS kerosene was used in a big way to adulterate petrol and diesel. However, with the opening up of the economy many other streams and side products are readily available, which are frequently being used as adulterants for prime fuels. Oil industry as well as Government of India has taken various measures to curb this menace and the present paper gives an overview on different measures taken to put an end to the adulteration of prime fuel with other streams. Further, in a significant move to curb adulteration of petrol and diesel, Marker Systems is being used that promises to stamp out the problems of adulteration. The present paper also covers the methodology of selection of the marker systems for fuels, detailed testing and their field trials.
Gupta, Anurag A., Puri, S.K., Malhotra, R.K., Raje, N.R.
SAE Cold Start and Driveability ProcedureJ1635_200210 (Current)10/25/2002
To subjectively evaluate engine starting behavior and driveability characteristics of a motor vehicle which has been soaked at ambient temperature for a given time period after attaining a stabilized engine coolant temperature. This SAE Recommended Practice also defines driveability defects and the rating system. This evaluation may be affected by ambient temperature, altitude, fuel, and the road system. The vehicle should be evaluated with all fuels recommended by the manufacturer. A partial list comprises reformulated gasoline, ethanol/gasoline and methanol/gasoline blends of various proportions, diesel #1, and diesel #2.
Light Duty Vehicle Performance and Economy Measure Committee
Investigation on the Stability of MMT Anti-Knock Additive2002-01-289510/21/2002
1 Generally some Chinese gasoline has long-term storage from few months to four years, and will be exposed to light in the transportation and distribution processes. So whether the antiknock additive Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl (MMT) can be applied to gasoline is in question. The Fuel Storage Management Administration (FSMA) in China wants to make clear the stability of MMT in gasoline and its effect on the gasoline quality when exposed to sunlight. In this study the base gasoline was prepared using typical gasoline blending stocks in China. The 28-week darkroom storage experiments at 43 °C were performed to study the storage stability of MMT in gasoline and its influence on the gasoline properties. The sunlight exposure experiments were conducted to assess the photolysis characters of MMT and its impact on the properties of gasoline with the establishment of kinetic equations. Finally the mathematical models were built to predict the variation of induction period and existent gum of MMT gasoline in sunlight exposure outdoors.
Xiong, Chunhua, Liu, Huiying, Wei, Rui, Lu, Changbo
Vehicle Exhaust Emissions Benefit from a Regulatory Cap in Gasoline Distillation Index2001-01-19635/7/2001
The Distillation Index (DI) is a measure of the volatility of gasoline, especially its tendency to vaporize in an engine at initial start-up and during warm up. On January 27, 1999 the U.S. domestic and import automotive manufacturers petitioned the US EPA to limit the DI of all U.S. gasoline to 1200 degrees Fahrenheit as a means of reducing in-use emissions and ensuring consistent cold start and warm-up driveability.[1] Air Improvement Resource, Inc. (AIR) completed a 1999 study that evaluated the benefits of a DI cap. Overall, the 1999 AIR study estimated that the DI cap would produce a 16 and 15 percent reduction in hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) exhaust, respectively, from gasoline vehicles nationally in 2020. [2] In 2000, the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers sponsored a more compreshensive examination of the emission consequences of the DI cap on which this paper is based. In this paper, the results include an evaluation of 1999 gasoline survey data and an accounting for potential future changes in oxygenate consumption - for example the elimination of MTBE use in gasoline. This updated analysis estimates that the DI cap would produce a national benefit of 20 to 23 percent for exhaust HC and 25 percent for exhaust CO. Thus, the need for a DI cap and the benefit from such a cap have increased over that estimated in 1999. Moreover, this paper also shows that the magnitude of the DI cap benefit varies regionally according to gasoline type sold. Areas subject to Federal reformulated gasoline requirements potentially would realize the greatest emission inventory benefit from the proposed DI cap - up to a 28 percent reduction in HC exhaust from gasoline vehicles in 2020, and these are areas where the benefit would be the most beneficial to ambient air quality.
Heiken, Jeremy G., Darlington, Thomas L., Kahlbaum, Dennis, Herwick, Gary
Challenges in Reforming Gasoline: All Components are Not Created Equal2001-01-19155/7/2001
Gasoline is a complex fuel. Many of the constituents of gasoline that are beneficial for the internal combustion engine (ICE) are expected to be challenging for on-board reformers in fuel-cell vehicles. To address these issues, the autothermal reforming of gasoline and individual components of gasoline has been investigated. The results indicate that aromatic components require higher temperatures and longer contact times to reform than paraffinic components. Napthenic components require higher temperatures to reform, but can be reformed at higher space velocities than paraffinic components. The effects of sulfur are dependent on the catalyst. These results suggest that further evolution of gasoline could reduce the demands on the reformer and provide a better fuel for a fuel-cell vehicle.
Kopasz, John P., Ahmed, Shabbir, Krumpelt, Michael, Devlin, Peter
Strategies for Handling the Fuel Additive Problem in Neural Network Based Ion Current Interpretation2001-01-05603/5/2001
With the introduction of unleaded gasoline, special fuel agents have appeared on the market for lubricating and cleaning the valve seats. These fuel agents often contain alkali metals that have a significant impact on the ion current signal, thus affecting strategies that use the ion current for engine control and diagnosis, e.g. for estimating the location of the pressure peak. This paper introduces a method for making neural network algorithms robust to expected disturbances in the input signal and demonstrates how well this method applies to the case of disturbances to the ion current signal due to fuel additives containing Sodium. The performance of the neural estimators is compared to a Gaussian fit algorithm, which they outperform. It is also shown that using a fuel additive significantly improves the estimation of the location of the pressure peak.
Byttner, Stefan, Rögnvaldsson, Thorsteinn, Wickström, Nicholas
Engine-out Benzene Emissions from Gasoline Vehicles and Effectiveness of Catalytic Converters2001-26-00181/10/2001
An experimental study was conducted on 2-stroke/4-stroke two-wheelers and a carburetted passenger car for engine-out benzene emissions from the in-use Indian vehicles, with and without a catalytic converter. The leaded gasoline, used for the study, was having 1.1 % vol. benzene and 16.6 % vol. total aromatics whereas unleaded gasoline was having 2.2 % vol. benzene and 35.2 % vol. total aromatics. Engine-out benzene was found to be linearly related to both, benzene and total aromatics content in the gasoline. Effectiveness of catalytic converter for conversion of the engine-out benzene was also studied. For two-wheelers, the concentration of engine-out benzene seems to be dependent upon the engine type i.e. 2/4-stroke engine and on conversion efficiency of the catalytic converters.
Jain, A.K., Singh, Y., Singh, S., Abraham, M., Singhal, S.
Reduced Particulate Emissions with Reformulated Gasoline2000-01-20176/19/2000
Exhaust emissions from cars using reformulated gasoline (RFG) that meets European 2005 regulations for gasoline quality were compared to the emissions from cars using gasoline that meets European 2000 regulations (EU2000). Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) and Tertiary Amyl Methyl Ether (TAME) were used as oxygenates in the reformulated gasoline. The EU2000 gasoline contained no oxygen. Regulated, particulate and PAH exhaust emissions were measured at 22°C for 7 cars and at -7°C for 5 cars using the European MVEG cycle for year 2000 (ECE+EUDC). One of the cars was equipped with a lean burn engine, one with a direct injection engine and one was a carburetor equipped car without a catalytic converter. All other cars were equipped with multi point port fuel injection and a catalytic converter. Mutagenic activity of particulate mass was evaluated using the Ames test. Particulate emissions of reformulated gasoline were decreased on average by 30% at 22°C and 40% at -7°C compared to EU2000 gasoline. This observation may be significant as harmful health effects of particulates have recently been under discussion in many countries. Particulate emissions were remarkably higher at -7°C than at 22°C. The amount of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in particulates were significantly lower when reformulated gasoline was used. The effect was similar both with the cars equipped with catalytic converters and with the car without a converter. The tentative mutagenicity tests of particulate mass showed lower response for reformulated gasoline than for EU2000 gasoline. Emissions of total hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen were also reduced at both temperatures when reformulated gasoline was used instead of EU2000 gasoline.
Kokko, Jussi, Rantanen, Leena, Pentikäinen, Juha, Honkanen, Tapio, Aakko, Päivi, Lappi, Maija
Differences Between the US and the EU Fuel Regulation Policies: A Comparative Analysis of the U.S. RFG Program and the EU Auto Oil I Program2000-01-19716/19/2000
Policymakers across the globe are increasingly addressing traffic related air pollution and its impact on public health and the environment. When looking for a potential policy fix to air pollution created by transportation sources (mobile sources), governments have tended to base their policy options on changes in vehicle technology and fuel quality. With regard to fuel quality issues, two key policy models are typically used across the globe. These are the: U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 and the mandated United States Federal Reformulated Gasoline Program The European Union Auto Oil Programme and the resulting Fuels Directive 98/70/EEC Although countries have opted or are opting for approaches similar to one or the other program based on national relevance from a political, economic, or industry perspective, no systematic or political analysis has been published comparing the EU and U.S. models regulating fuel quality. This paper focuses on these two regulatory frameworks and demonstrates that, due to different air quality priorities and policy approaches, the resulting specifications ultimately established for automotive fuels are quite different in these two regions.
Dixson-Declève, Sandrine
Development of a High Performance Anti-Wear Additive Providing Protection Against Valve Seat Recession Combined with Octane Enhancement in Treated Fuel2000-01-20166/19/2000
Response to lead phase out in European countries depends on a number of factors including refinery configuration and vehicle population. Vehicle populations differ widely in different EU member states, and in some countries engineering changes made during the 1970s and 1980s have left the year 2000 vehicle populations able to operate on unleaded gasoline with no problems. For various demographic reasons, in certain other countries, a substantial proportion of the vehicle population still requires lead or an alternative additive to provide protection against the well known problem of valve seat recession. Benefits can arise from the use of additives able to increase both octane quality and to provide protection from valve seat recession. A development programme was undertaken to produce an additive formulation which could combine octane enhancement with excellent protection from valve seat recession. The programme involved vehicle and engine tests designed to quantify the performance of the additive and to assess its suitability for widespread use. These tests included valve seat recession performance, and octane determinations.
Mulqueen, S., Vincent, M. W., Mulcare, C.
The Influence of Ferrocenyl n-Hexyl Diketone Chelate Complexes on Gasoline Engine Fuel Properties1999-01-358710/25/1999
In this study, some ferrocenyl n-hexyl diketone chelate complexes of rare earth elements and a transition metal were prepared and their fuel properties such as solubility, corrosivity, flammability and their effects on engine emission characteristics were evaluated. The test results showed that the prepared compounds could improve fuel properties and meet requirements for solubility and corrosiveness. This study indicates that the chelate complexes could be candidates for use as gasoline additive.
Rujie, Yao, Zhizhong, Liu
Biodegradability Characteristics of Current and Newly-Developed Alternative Fuels1999-01-351810/25/1999
Concern with environmental issues such as global climate change has stimulated research into the development of more environmentally friendly technologies and energy sources. One critical area of our economy is liquid transportation fuels. In response to these issues, Pure Energy Corporation has developed engineered fuels which are largely composed of chemicals which can be generated from renewable materials. This paper presents the results of biodegradability testing of these alternative fuels and their components and compares them to that of current fuels. Alternative fuels tested included: E85, biodiesel, B20, and two engineered fuels from Pure Energy Corporation (P-Series and OxyDiesel). Gasoline and #2 diesel (diesel) were also run as baseline comparisons. Determination of the biodegradability potential of the chemicals and fuel formulations was determined by using the ASTM Standard Test Method for Determining, Ready, Ultimate, Biodegradability of Organic Chemicals in a Sealed Vessel CO2 Production Test, ASTM Method E 1720-95. Performance data is also given for the two Pure Energy fuels and compared to gasoline and diesel. All alternative fuels tested proved to be more biodegradable than the hydrocarbon fuels, gasoline and diesel.
Speidel, Harold K., Ahmed, Irshad
An Analysis of 1996-98 Gasoline Quality in the United States1999-01-358410/25/1999
The importance of the fuel in providing improved vehicle performance and reduced emissions has become widely recognized, especially in the past ten years. In 1998, an SAE paper was presented providing a systematic analyses of 1996 United States gasoline quality. This paper extends the methodology of that paper to include the impact of fuel composition on evaporative emissions, and it provides analyses of gasoline quality for the years of 1996, 1997 and 1998. The vehicle performance and emissions characteristics of gasolines were determined using data from surveys of United States' service station gasoline samples. Results are presented for: gasoline type (California RFG - reformulated gasoline, Federal RFG, low RVP - Reid Vapor Pressure, and conventional); gasoline grade (regular, intermediate and premium); individual cities; individual brands (coded); and for sulfur content. It is concluded that: differences exist among commercial gasolines for all of the items evaluated; the differences are narrowing; and overall gasoline quality is improving.
Darlington, Thomas L., Kahlbaum, Dennis F., Colucci, Joseph M.
Fuel Quality Control by Mid Infrared Spectroscopy1999-01-15465/3/1999
Gasolines and diesel fuels of wide source were analyzed with the aim to predict the quality through the mid infrared spectroscopy and the algorithms PCA-PCR and PLS. The results revealed that octane number, cetane number, MTBE, benzene, aromatics and specific gravity could be predicted with good reliability. The other relevant fuel physical-chemical characteristics were beyond the precision of the standard test methods.
Janis, B.
Development of the First Unleaded Aviation Gasoline ASTM Specification1999-01-15694/20/1999
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) sponsored a Symposium entitled Future Fuels for General Aviation Intermittent Combustion Engines[1] held on 29 June 1988, in Baltimore, Maryland. This event prompted the formation of an ASTM D02 Subcommittee J Section 2 Future Fuels For General Aviation Task Group [2], that successfully capped a ten year effort with the recent publication of ASTM D 6227-98 Standard Specification for Grade 82 Unleaded Aviation Gasoline [3]. This paper reflects on the Grade 82 UL Aviation Gasoline Specification development program[4,5], beginning with fundamental questions related to the quality of available feed stocks. It includes results of studies and tests undertaken by the Cessna Aircraft Company to demonstrate the feasibility of using the fuel described by the Specification in aircraft designed for its use. Additionally, it includes results of studies and tests undertaken at the request of ASTM D02 Subcommittee J on Aviation Fuels members during the Specification development process. [4,5]
Gonzalez, Cesar, Jesik, Richard L.
Fuel Composition Analysis and Studies on Fuel Adulteration using State-of-Art High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with High Resolution Gas Chromatography9900461/13/1999
A strong co-relation exists between composition of a fuel and the exhaust that is formed during combustion. In this context, with the stringent emission regulations, the chemical characteristics of fuels have become of increasing importance. Petroleum derived fuels are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons containing hundreds of different aliphatic and aromatic compounds. EPA, to control the exhaust pollutants, regularly publishes the international updates on limits for aromatic, olefins and saturate contents in gasoline fuels. The Indian legislative standard DOC No. MOST/CMVR/TAP-115/116 specifies olefin and aromatic contents to 20% and 45% max. by volume respectively for the Indian reference petrol. While, Indian specification IS: 2796-1995 has laid down the limits for benzene content to 5% max. by volume for leaded regular, unleaded regular & unleaded premium gasoline for the year 2000 norms. However, there is no control for aromatic in diesel fuels in the Indian specification IS 1460-1995. Essentially diesel fuels are olefin free with typical chemical class composition of 15-30% aromatics and 70-80% saturated aliphatic [1]. The polycyclic aromatic fraction of diesel fuel contains three, four and larger ring aromatics. These compounds are thought to contribute towards diesel exhaust polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAC), both as unburned fuel and through pyrolysis plus pyrosynthetic route. The fuel droplet core, depending upon the size for surface evaporation and availability of oxygen for combustion, undergoes “pyrolysis”. Then the unstable compounds forms some ring chains the process being defined as “pyrosynthesis”. Many PAC are listed as EPA priority pollutants because they are known or suspected mutagens and/or carcinogens. The percentage of diesel powered vehicles on the road is increasing significantly owing to their superior fuel economy over gasoline powered vehicles. As diesel exhaust emissions are increasingly being viewed as an important contributor to environmental pollution. Accurate analysis of fuel composition and PAC in both diesel fuels and exhaust particulate is necessary to understand and control the problem. Moreover based on research findings formulation of diesel quality standards should be reviewed to improve public safety. Fuel specifications for commercial fuel and reference fuel for India year 2000 emission norms have recently been published. The worry is that the standard does not speak about the composition except certain physico-chemical properties nor seem to have taken cognisance of serious repurcussions of the specific class of aromatics present both from the point of view of gaseous and PNA emission. The recent european auto oil programme did a lot of research work on fuel vs emission taking for granted their fuel quality. However, more work is needed to get further details of fuel quality. The development of suitable methods for the determination of fuel constituents has also been the subject of interest of intense research for the last many years. The present paper is on the experimental techniques developed on High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with High Resolution Gas Chromatography (HPLC/HRGC) which are used for ascertaining the composition of Indian commercial verses the reference fuel used in the developed countries. The results and discussions reveal that the Indian gasoline and diesel fuels need to be reformulated to meet the future demands of emission regulations and to be environmentally friendly with less carcinogenic and mutagenic pollutants. The paper also discusses the laboratory procedure developed to study diesel fuel adulteration with kerosene and its effects on aromatic and aliphatic contents
Arankalle, A. R., Ahir, Anjali R.
Projections on Automotive Fuel Quality in India for Meeting Future Vehicle Emission Norms9900201/13/1999
Environmental regulations are going to put severe demands on the oil industry for improving fuel quality. Awareness about increasing contribution of automotive vehicles to air pollution particularly in major Indian cities has led to the enforcement of more and more stringent vehicle emission regulations. Emission norms to be applicable from April 1, 2000 for gasoline and diesel vehicles call for major changes in the engine design and a substantial improvement in the present level of fuel quality. Various fuel characteristics significantly affect the vehicle emissions. Main properties of attention are content of lead, sulphur, benzene, aromatics, olefins and oxygenates, and fuel stability in case of gasoline; and cetane number, distillation range, oxidation stability, aromatics content, sulphur content and density in case of diesel fuel. This paper presents a review of the worldwide trends in fuel quality changes for meeting emission norms. Future Indian requirements and their implications are discussed. Effect of various fuel characteristics on vehicle emissions has been reviewed. An effort has been made to co-relate emission norms with fuel quality requirements in India for meeting projected emission norms up to year 2005. Indian vehicle emission norms for the year 2005 have been speculated. In India, for the year 2005, total elimination of leaded gasoline and the gasoline and diesel fuel specifications similar to proposed European fuel specifications for the year 2000 have been proposed.
Jain, A. K., Gandhi, K. K.
Gasoline Dispenser Nozzle SpoutsJ285_199901 (Historical)1/1/1999
This SAE Recommended Practice provides standardized dimensions for nozzle spouts and a system for differentiating between 'unleaded gasoline' nozzle spouts and all other fuel nozzle spouts. If emission control equipment requires unleaded gasoline exclusively and others fuels not meeting this specification are available, differention is accomplished by providing differences between the outside diameter of the nozzle spouts used to dispense 'unleaded gasoline' and those used for all other fuels. These differences establish a basis on which fuel filler inlets that will accept only 'unleaded gasoline' can be designed.
Fuel Systems Standards Committee
Fuel System Development to Improve Cold Start Performance of a Flexible Fuel Vehicle98253210/19/1998
This paper describes an investigation into a method of starting a spark ignition IC engine in cold ambient conditions, that normally operates on methanol or ethanol. Hardware was designed and installed in two Volvo S70 vehicles which allowed the delivery of gasoline to the combustion chamber during starting. The engine management system was modified to control the gasoline delivery and to manage the transition from the gasoline start back to normal operation on methanol or ethanol.
Stodart, Andy, Maher, Jim, Greger, Lars, Carlsson, Jan-Olof
The Texas Project, Part 4 - Final Results: Emissions and Fuel Economy of CNG and LPG Conversions of Light-Duty Vehicles98244610/19/1998
The Texas Project was a multi-year study of aftermarket conversions of a variety of light-duty vehicles to CNG or LPG. Emissions and fuel economy when using these fuels are compared to the results for the same vehicles operating on certification gasoline and Federal Phase 1 RFG. Since 1993, 1,040 tests were conducted on 10 models, totally 86 light-duty vehicles. The potential for each vehicle model/kit combination to attain LEV certification was assessed. Also, comparisons of emissions and fuel economy between converted vehicles when operating on gasoline and nominally identical un-converted gasoline control vehicles were analyzed. Additional evaluations were performed for a subfleet that was subjected to exhaust speciations for operation over the Federal Test Procedure cycle and also for off-cycle tests.
Wu, D-Y., Matthews, Ronald D., Popova, E. T., Mock, C.
An Analysis of 1996 Gasoline Quality in the United States98272310/19/1998
The importance of the fuel in providing improved vehicle performance and reduced emissions has become widely recognized in the past ten years. However, few if any systematic analyses of gasoline quality have ever been published. A methodology has been developed for analyzing the vehicle performance and emissions characteristics of gasolines. It has been applied to data obtained from surveys of United States' service station gasoline samples obtained in 23 cities during 1996. Results are presented for: gasoline type (California RFG - reformulated gasoline, Federal RFG, low RVP - Reid Vapor Pressure, and conventional); gasoline grade (regular, intermediate and premium); individual cities; individual brands (coded); and for sulfur content, the fuel property with the greatest current interest. It is concluded that large differences exist among commercial gasolines for all of the items evaluated.
Darlington, Thomas L., Kahlbaum, Dennis F., Colucci, Joseph M.
Spindt Air-Fuel Ratio Method Generalization for Oxygenated Fuels9820549/14/1998
A method to deduce the operating air-fuel ratio from the fuel flow rate, fuel characteristics, and emissions was introduced by Spindt in 1965 for conventional (nonoxy-genated) fuels. This study expands the original method to encompass oxygenated fuels. The use of the expanded Spindt Method allows the equivalence ratio to be estimated more accurately at high oxygenated fuel blends. Two generalizations are developed and proposed. One of the methods is shown to provide a 8-10% improvement in equivalence ratio estimation at a 17%wt oxygen typically under the maximum SAE J1088 load condition. To evaluate the two proposed generalized Spindt Methods, a series of small engines and fuels were emissions tested to determine the utility of the generalized Spindt Methods for analysis of oxygenated fuels. Air-fuel ratio estimates from the proposed Spindt Methods were compared to the original Spindt Method to assess equivalence ratio estimation improvements. Key to the Spindt Method comparisons were the series of emissions tests providing total hydrocarbons, oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides data from a series of small utility engines over a 0%vol to 50%vol range of oxygenate addition. The oxygenates ethanol and MTBE were used in this study. The seven popular (high volume sales) engines emissions tested were comprised of four 3.7 kW (5 hp) engines (two side valve and two overhead valve) and three 9.3 kW (12.5 hp) engines (two side valve and one overhead valve). The emissions were measured by a 5-gas analyzer reporting total hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. EPA small engine test procedures, of which the Society of Automotive Engineers J1088 testing specification is a subset, were followed. The fuel flow method option was used, as is the practice of small engine manufacturers in the United States, requiring the use of the Spindt Method to determine equivalence ratios.
Bresenham, Damon, Reisel, John, Neusen, Ken
A New Concept for Low Emission Diesel Combustion (2nd Rep. : Reduction of HC and CO Emission, and Improvement of Fuel Consumption by EGR and MTBE Blended Fuel)9819338/11/1998
A new concept for diesel combustion has been investigated by means of engine experiments and combustion observations in order to realize a simultaneous reduction of NOx and particulate emissions. The concept is based on pre-mixed compression ignition combustion combined with multiple injection. In this method, some part of fuel is injected at an early stage of the process to form a homogeneous lean pre-mixture, then the remaining fuel is injected at around the TDC in the same manner as a conventional diesel injection. The emissions, ROHR (rate of heat release), and combustion pictures of conventional combustion, pilot injection combustion, and this new combustion concept were compared and analyzed. Engine tests were carried out using a single cylinder research engine equipped with a common rail injection system. The experimental results showed that the tradeoff relations of smoke and fuel consumption against NOx emissions of this concept was worse than those of a conventional injection or a pilot injection in a high NOx region. However, this concept has advantages of smoke and fuel consumption in the region where the main injection timing is considerably retarded. In order to improve this combustion concept, the effects of EGR and oxygenated fuel were investigated. It was found that EGR had the effect to reduce both NOx and HC emissions and that oxygenated fuel improved emission and fuel consumption. The results of combustion observations were also discussed in order to compare the combustion phenomena.
Yokota, Haruyuki, Nakajima, Hiroshi, Kakegawa, Toshiaki
SAE Cold Start and Driveability ProcedureJ1635_199808 (Historical)8/1/1998
To subjectively evaluate engine starting behavior and driveability characteristics of a motor vehicle which has been soaked at ambient temperature for a given time period after attaining a stabilized engine coolant temperature. This SAE Recommended Practice also defines driveability defects and the rating system. This evaluation may be affected by ambient temperature, altitude, fuel, and the road system. The vehicle should be evaluated with all fuels recommended by the manufacturer. A partial list comprises reformulated gasoline, ethanol/gasoline and methanol/gasoline blends of various proportions, diesel #1, and diesel #2.
Light Duty Vehicle Performance and Economy Measure Committee
Antiknock Performance of Gasoline Substitutes and their Effects on Gasoline Properties9813675/4/1998
This paper describes some of the recent work carried out in our laboratory regarding the effects of novel oxygen and nitrogen containing compounds on the antiknock quality of unleaded gasoline and their effects on some other gasoline properties. In particular, the research included Research Octane Number (RON) measurements and the evaluation of the effects of the most effective antiknock compounds on Dry Vapour Pressure Equivalent (DVPE), distillation temperatures, aromatic content, olefins, and oxygen content. Emphasis was given in studying chemical structures that can be derived from renewable raw materials. The compounds tested included substituted phenols, furan derivatives, aliphatic amines, various amide structures and Mannich base phenols. Methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE), the most widespread oxygenate currently used in gasoline, was used as a yardstick for assessing the quality of the compounds tested. It was found that many of the chemical structures studied perform better than MTBE regarding ignition quality and, in addition, are able to reduce the aromatic content of gasoline. The effects of the various compounds on the other gasoline properties measured depend largely on their individual chemical structure and their physical properties.
Gouli, S., Stournas, S., Lois, E.
Life Cycle Value Assessment (LCVA) Comparison of Conventional Gasoline and Reformulated Gasoline9804682/23/1998
Fuel choices are being made today by consumers, industry and government. One such choice is whether to use reformulated gasoline to replace regular unleaded gasoline. A second choice involves the source of crude oil, with synthetic crude oil from tar sands currently expanding its share of the Canadian supply. Decision makers usually work with the direct economic consequences of their fuel choice. However, they generally lack the knowledge to measure environmental aspects of different fuel systems. This paper uses Life Cycle Value Assessment (LCVA) to demonstrate how the life cycle environmental aspects can be compared for alternative fuel choices. LCVA is an engineering decision making tool which provides a framework for the decision maker to consider the key economic and environmental impacts for the entire life cycle of alternative products or process systems. This paper presents an LCVA case-study comparing conventional gasoline and reformulated gasoline as produced from energy resources in Alberta, Canada. A fifteen percent MTBE blended gasoline is compared to regular unleaded gasoline using data from publicly accessible sources. In addition, this paper compares conventional crude oil to tar sands synthetic crude as hydrocarbon sources for the two gasoline fuels. The study concludes that the only significant advantage of MTBE-blended gasoline over regular unleaded gasoline is a reduction of hazardous air pollutants at the combustion stage. Considering the entire life cycle, there is no significant difference between the fuels in ground-level ozone precursors while MTBE-blended gasoline is at a slight disadvantage with respect to acid rain precursors, greenhouse gases and particulate matter emissions. Comparing energy sources, fuel produced from tar sands crude produces substantially more acid rain precursors and greenhouse gases in the upstream processes. However, in the context of the overall fuel system, the increase is relatively small (less than 5% in best case). One aspect of the sensitivity analysis compared various approaches to reducing environmental impact. This showed that reducing vehicle fuel consumption would reduce environmental impact more than comparable improvements in emission rates at the various steps of the process.
Raynolds, Marlo A., Checkel, M. David
The Effect of a Gasoline Additive, Automobile Make, and Driving Cycle on Intake Valve Deposits (IVD) and Combustion Chamber Deposits (CCD) in a Ten Car Fleet Test97283610/1/1997
In a ten car fleet test, the amount and chemical composition of intake valve deposits (IVD) and combustion chamber deposits (CCD) were determined. Five car makes, three driving cycles, and a gasoline with and without an IVD reducing additive were used. The amount of IVD and CCD were a strong function of car make, and the additive decreased IVD and increased CCD compared with non-additized base gasoline. The chemical changes in the composition of the CCD show that the additive was the source of the increased CCD. For all vehicles tested, a modified AMA Driving Cycle and a BMW Driving Cycle produced similar amounts of IVD and CCD, with similar chemical compositions. In contrast, the high speed cycle produced less CCD and gave CCD and IVD that had a different chemical composition than that of the other two driving cycles. No CCDI (combustion chamber deposit interference) and no driveability problems occurred during the normal course of accumulating mileage.
Homan, Howard S., Kelemen, Simon R.
NMHC by Subtraction Doesn't Work for Natural Gas Vehicles9726428/6/1997
The standard procedure for determining non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) emissions is to subtract measured methane emissions from total hydrocarbon emissions measured by flame ionization detector. The results of this method were compared to the results of direct GC speciation of hydrocarbon emissions. For gasoline vehicles using an all-hydrocarbon fuel, the two methods demonstrate nearly perfect correlation, with a linear regression coefficient near 1.0, and R2 = 0.999. The correlation using reformulated gasoline is only slightly worse. For natural gas vehicles, however, the correlation was poor, with R2 < 0.30. This poor correlation is attributed to the high methane content of natural gas, which results in NMHC emissions being very low compared to the level of methane. Both the total hydrocarbon and methane measurements contain some error, and the resulting combined error in the NMHC concentration is of the same order as the concentration itself. It is concluded that the subtraction method produces unacceptable errors in determining NMHC emissions from natural gas vehicles, and should not be used for this purpose.
Weaver, Christopher S., Chan, Lit-Mian, Dudek, Walter D., Lautman, Louis A.
Use of TAME and Heavier Ethers (NExTAME) as Gasoline Reformulation Components9717245/1/1997
The purpose of our study was to investigate the effects of TAME and heavier ethers on reformulated gasoline. The research work focused on the comparison of Californian Phase 2 gasoline (CARB), current Finnish reformulated gasoline containing MTBE (RFG1), or MTBE+TAME+heavier ethers (RFG2) with non-oxygenated Eurograde gasoline (EN228). Significant reductions in exhaust emissions were achieved with all reformulated fuels when compared to the Eurograde fuel. For instance, benzene emissions were reduced as much as 40 to 50 % for all cars at two temperatures and the emissions of total toxics were reduced by 14 to 45 % depending on vehicle type and temperature. The lowest 1,3-butadiene emissions were achieved with CARB gasoline. The amount of PAH compounds in the particulate matter from the non-catalyst vehicle was lower with the reformulated fuels than with the Eurograde fuel. The amount of volatile PAH compounds in semivolatile phase of particles seemed to be reduced with reformulated gasoline as well. As gasoline blending components TAME and heavier ethers proved to be as good as MTBE. Additionally they improved the octane number distribution of reformulated gasolines.
Aakko, Päivi, Kytö, Matti, Lappi, Maija, Kivi, Jouni, Rautiola, Aimo, Kokko, Jussi, Pentikäinen, Juha
The Texas Project: Part 3 - Off-Cycle Emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles Operating on CNG, LPG, Federal Phase 1 Reformulated Gasoline, and/or Low Sulfur Certification Gasoline96210010/1/1996
Off-cycle emissions from seven different types of 1994 light-duty vehicles were examined The test fleet consisted of 19 individual vehicles including a passenger car, two makes of light light-duty trucks, and five types of heavy light-duty trucks The driving cycles used for these tests were the US06(hard acceleration, high speed) cycle and the 20 °F FTP (the “Cold FTP”) Conventional FTPs were done for comparison Each vehicle was usually operated on at least two of the following CNG, LPG, Federal Phase 1 reformulated gasoline (FP1 RFG), and a low sulfur certification gasoline For both the conventional FTP and the US06 cycles, the alternative fuels produce statistically significant benefits in Ozone Forming Potential and exhaust toxics but the NOx emissions are not statistically different from those when operating on FP1 RFG with at least 90% confidence During Cold FTP tests, the emissions of CO and of toxics when operating on FP1 RFG are not statistically different from those when operating on a low sulfur certification gasoline In contrast the alternative fuels produce statistically significant benefits in the emissions of both CO and toxics compared to either of the gasolines during Cold FTP tests The Reactivity Adjustment Factor calculated from the present conventional FTP results for CNG agrees closely with the CARB value However, the present RAF for LPG is about half CARB s value, which is believed to be a consequence of the low propene in Texas LPG compared to the high propene in California LPG The effects of the test type on the emissions are also discussed
Wu, D.-Y, Matthews, Ronald D., Zheng, J., Shen, K
Comparison of the Lubricity of Gasoline and Diesel Fuels96201010/1/1996
The High Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) commonly used to measure the friction and wear properties of diesel fuels has been modified to study gasoline lubricity. Wear tests have been carried out on a range of gasoline and diesel fuels. The non-additised gasolines tested all give higher wear than severely-refined Class I diesel fuels. The effect of relative humidity on the wear properties of both gasoline and diesel fuels has been compared. Both types of fuel give wear behavior which is almost independent of water vapour pressure down to 0 8 kPa, but show a reduction of wear below this humidity level. In practice most gasoline fuels contain detergent additives. The influence of two commercial gasoline detergent additives of different structure on gasoline lubricity has been studied. Both additives reduce wear, to an extent which is dependent upon additive concentration and also upon the base fuel. Wear tends to remain high up to a detergent additive concentration of about 200-300 ppm but then falls above this level. This concentration is of the same order as that used in practice in commercial gasolines. Wear tests have been carried out using a commercial diesel fuel lubricity additive. This has been found to be equally effective in reducing wear and friction coefficient in gasolines as in diesel fuel.
Ping, Wei Dan, Korcek, Stefan, Spikes, Hugh
NYSERDA AFV-FDP M85 Flexible Fuel Vehicle Fleet Operating Experience96206810/1/1996
This project demonstrates the use of M85 as an alternative fuel for vehicle operation. The fleets chosen for this demonstration experienced driving conditions typical for most vehicles, i.e., interstate highways and suburban traffic. Four generations of flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs), the 1986 and 1989 Ford Crown Victoria and the 1991 and 1993 Ford Taurus, were used in individual fleet operation. The demonstration spanned a period of over seven years from 1988 through 1995 and approximately 220 vehicle-years of M85 FFV operational data were collected. These data were analyzed to create a comprehensive knowledge base for fuel economy, emissions, driveability, acceleration, maintenance and wear characteristics of FFVs. A comparison of the overall performance of these vehicles with conventional gasoline vehicles was made. Important experience in the design, construction and maintenance of M85 refueling facilities was obtained over the duration of this project.
Yelne, Ajay, Bechtold, Richard L., Moog, Chris G., Laughlin, Mike, Wagner, Joseph R., Hudson, Lawrence R.
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