Browse Topic: Gasoline

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Statistical Analysis of Data Acquired from Propagating Flames in Gasoline Engines Using a Multiple Ion Probe2024-32-003504/18/2025
Multiple-ion-probe method consists of multiple ion probes placed on the combustion chamber wall, where each individual ion probe detects flame contact and records the time of contact. From the recorded data, it is also possible to indirectly visualize the inside of the combustion chamber, for example, as a motion animation of moving flame front. In this study, a thirty-two ion probes were used to record flames propagating in a two-stroke gasoline engine. The experiment recorded the combustion state in the engine for about 3 seconds under full load at about 6500 rpm, and about 300 cycles were recorded in one experiment. Twelve experiments were conducted under the same experimental conditions, and a total of 4,164 cycles of signal data were obtained in the twelve experiments. Two types of analysis were performed on this data: statistical analysis and machine learning analysis using a linear regression model. Statistical analysis calculated the average flame detection time and standard
Yatsufusa, Tomoaki, Okahira, Takehiro, Nagashige, Kohei
Investigation on the Applicability of Passive Type Pre-Chamber with One Port Fuel Injection System to Small Gasoline Engines2024-32-003304/18/2025
Pre-chamber combustion has been applied as a method of low fuel consumption in spark ignition engines, and in recent years the application of pre-chambers to gasoline engines has also been actively studied. In many gasoline engines, stoichiometric combustion is common. We decided that a passive type pre-chamber with only one port fuel injection is sufficient for stoichiometric combustion. The pre-chamber system relatively has two merits of lower cost and ease of installing than other prechamber systems. Therefore, we focused on investigating the effects of improving combustion speed and knock resistance in use of the passive type pre-chamber and the applicability of the pre-chamber system in various operating points. As the concrete approach, we evaluated the heat balance and the knock resistance with and without a pre-chamber in engine bench test. As a result, the knock resistance and the fuel consumption were improved. In addition, as a result of considering lean burn in the passive
Nakao, Yoshinori, Sakurai, Yota, Hisano, Atsushi, Saitou, Masahito, Suzuki, Tomoharu
Impact of Ordinal Proximity of Frequency Components on the Auditory Perception of Engine Knocking2024-32-003204/18/2025
This study examines the acoustic properties of engine-knocking sounds in gasoline engines, arising from misfires during spark ignition that negatively affect driving performance. The aim was to understand the frequency characteristics of acceleration sounds and their connection to the proximity of the order components. The study also explores “booming,” where two different frequencies of sounds occur simultaneously, potentially linked to the unpleasant nature of engine knocking. Using a sinusoidal model, we generated engine acceleration sound models with 5th-, 10th-, and 15th-order components, including engine knocking. Two types of sound stimuli were created: one with the original amplitude (OA) and one with a constant amplitude (CA) for each component order, emphasizing the order-component proximity in CA sounds. Aural experiments with 10 participants in an anechoic room using headphones and the MUSHRA method revealed an inverse relationship between OA and CA ratings as the component
Suzuki, Ryuhei, Ishimitsu, Shunsuke, Nitta, Misaki, Sakakibara, Mika, Hakozaki, Tomoyuki, Fujikawa, Satoshi, Iwata, Kiyoaki, Matsumoto, Mitsunori, Kikuchi, Masakazu
The Sky’s the Limit... Except for FuelLIFTOFF202411/08/2024
Oxygen and Petrol
A-10 Aircraft Oxygen Equipment Committee
Dynamic Spark Advance Technology for Gasoline Fuel Blends2024-26-007401/16/2024
Fuel efficiency is one of the most important customer requirement in Indian market as well as very crucial to meet the upcoming regulation like CAFÉ for Indian Automotive manufacturers. Most of the technology changes to meet this challenge, always come with a cost penalty with hardware addition. To counter the above challenge, we identified a strategy in the EMS software, without any hardware change, that will dynamically adapt the spark timing based on fuel quality. This strategy has resulted in fuel efficiency improvement on MIDC as well as on-road as per customer driving pattern. Going forward the availability of Ethanol Blended Fuels are going to increase multifold, to take advantage of this, the dynamic spark advance strategy has been proposed in this paper. This paper elaborates on the work done to develop and validate the EMS Strategy as well as the test results with different Ethanol Fuel Blends.
Tyagarajan, Sethuramalingam, Kavekar, Pratap, Suna, Bhagyashree, Agarwal, Nishant, Shaikh, Wasim
A comparative study of ethanol and methanol blends on performance and emissions on BSIV and BSVI class of vehicles2024-26-007301/16/2024
The quest for alternate fuels has led many researchers to evaluate various alcohols as an immediate substitute for gasoline. Among the alcohols, ethanol has received a lot of popularity as it can be produced from biomass feeds such as sugarcane and corn. Several countries have made it mandatory to blend at least 10% of ethanol in gasoline. However, the source of feedstock for ethanol production is posing a threat to food security. In order to restrain this problem, a few countries are promoting the use of methanol as an alternative fuel. Methanol can be obtained by processing naturally available biomass resources, much of which is waste material. Methanol-gasoline blends have been found to have a high octane number, good performance and lower carbon emissions, making it an excellent alternative fuel for engines. In the present study, a comparative analysis was carried out to evaluate the performance and emissions from unmodified vehicles using lower concentrations (up to 20%) of
Teja, Ravi, Khandai, Chinmayananda, Muralidharan, M
Optimization of HEV Vehicle’s Engine Modulated Noise2025-01-008405/05/2023
One 1.5L Miller-cycle turbocharged four cylinder gasoline hybrid engine is installed on a certain hybrid vehicle. When accelerating at low to medium speeds with a small throttle, there is a "da da" knocking noise inside the car, which seriously affects the overall sound quality of the vehicle. By analyzing the vibration and noise data of the engine, it was found that the frequency of the abnormal knocking sound is 200-1000Hz, which presents a half order characteristic in the time domain, that is, one knocking occurs when the engine crankshaft rotates twice. Through Hilbert demodulation analysis of the vibration data in the problem frequency range, it was found that the knocking noise was modulated in the frequency domain, with a modulation frequency of half of the crankshaft rotation frequency. By building a fully flexible multi-body dynamic model of a hybrid powertrain and inputting the engine's cylinder pressure excitation, the combustion excitation is coupled with mechanical
dan, Kong
Benefits of Octane-On-Demand in an E10-Gasoline Engine Vehicle Using an On-Board Fuel Separator2022-01-050603/29/2022
Knock in gasoline engines at higher loads is a significant constraint on torque and efficiency. The anti-knock property of a fuel is closely related to its research octane number (RON). Ethanol has superior RON compared to gasoline and thus has been commonly used to blend with gasoline in commercial fuels. As a result, an onboard Octane-on-demand (OOD) concept that separates commercial gasoline with ethanol content into high-octane fuel with high ethanol fraction and a lower octane remainder has been developed. It then uses both fuels in varying proportion to provide to the engine a fuel blend with just enough RON to meet the ever changing octane requirement that depends on driving pattern. In this work, the authors assessed the OOD concept on a state-of-art high-efficiency SI engine in three tasks: (1) Comparison of performance characteristics of an up-to-date reference engine coupled with cylinder deactivation (CDA) system, with a similar OOD engine. (2) Study of the performance of
Chen, Yu, Kasseris, Emmanuel, Heywood, John, Han, Donghee, Kim, Jaeheun, Lee, Kwanhee, Kang, Hyunjin, Zhou, Jinsheng, Mizuno, Kazuhiko, Seitz, Scott, Kim, Seongju, Min, Seungbae, Peters, Nathan, Subramanyam, Sai Krishna P., Bunce, Michael
Modeling of gasoline particulate filter regeneration: sensitivity of numerical solutions2022-01-067903/29/2022
Gasoline Direct-Injection (GDI) engine technology improves vehicle fuel economy toward future targets and simultaneously decreases CO2 emissions. The main drawback of this technology is the increased emission of particulates (when compared to their indirect injection-based technology counterpart). Thus, aftertreatment devices such as Gasoline Particulate Filters (GPFs) are today considered the most promising and practically adoptable solution to limit PM/PN out of GDI exhaust. The particulate filter traps soot particles resulting from fuel combustion and prevents their release into the atmosphere. Soot oxidation (also known as regeneration) is required at regular intervals to clean the filter, maintain a consistent soot trapping efficiency, and avoid the formation of soot plugs in the GPF channel. In this paper, starting from a multiphysics GPF model accounting for mass, momentum, and energy transport developed in our laboratory, a sensitivity analysis is carried out to choose the best
Levine, Kelsey, Pozzato, Gabriele, Onori, Simona
G Index: a novel knock detection method that is simpler and calibration-free2022-01-057703/29/2022
Ever restrictive emissions legislations and fuel efficiency targets have been posing challenges for engine development. Knocking is aloways a limiting factor for spark-ignited engines and has to be tighly controlled during the development phase. There are several methods that address how to detect and measure its occurense. They often require complex calculations with high computational costs that limit them only to laboratorial operation. Moreover, they are often calibrated with subjective factors, for each engine. Thus, this paper offers a novel process that is simpler and does not require previous calibration, called G Index. It is based on the angular position of the peak of maximum pressure rise rate and its relation to the 50% mass fraction burn angular possition. The results showed that there is a locus of knock-free operation with GI between -10 and 0. Higher values lead to a sudden jump towards a locus of knocking operation with GI between 6-10, where the thermodynamic state
Martins, Mario Eduardosantos
Analysis of the Piston Group Friction in a Single-Cylinder Gasoline Engine when Operated with Synthetic Fuel DMC/MeFo 2022-01-058603/29/2022
Synthetic fuels for internal combustion engines offer CO2-neutral mobility if produced in a closed-carbon-cycle using renewable energies. Oxygenated fuels such as dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and methyl formate (MeFo) have great potential to replace gasoline in SI engines. In this study, a mixture of 65 % DMC and 35 % MeFo (C65F35) was used in a single-cylinder research engine to determine friction losses of the piston group using the floating-liner-method. The results were benchmarked against gasoline. Compared to gasoline, the density of C65F35 is almost 40 % higher, but its mass-based heating value (LHV) is 2.8 times lower. Hence, more fuel must be injected to reach the same engine load as in a conventional gasoline engine, leading to an increased cooling effect. To determine this effect, the temperatures of the cylinder liner and piston of the research engine were measured. Depending on the load point, friction losses were reduced by up to 12 % compared to gasoline operation. Although
Binder, Jürgen, Krecker, Oleg, Kraus, Christoph, Jaensch, Malte, Wachtmeister, Georg
A prediction model of octane number loss based on neural network2022-01-018103/29/2022
The octane number is the most important indicator of motor petrol, and the petrol refining process is one of the important links in petrol production. The prediction of the octane loss number of petrol during the refining process is helpful to the improvement of petrol refining process and the processing of petrol. The traditional octane number prediction method relied on physical and chemical properties, and did not fully consider the high nonlinearity and strong coupling relationship of the petrol refining process.There is a lack of data-driven octane loss models. This paper studies the construction of the octane loss model in the petrol refining process. The main innovation is to use frequency statistics to summarize the operating range of data variables and preprocess the dataset, and use the variance selection method to filter out some invalid variables, then use the multi-dimensional association analysis to select 27 main operating variables in the next step. Finally, a neural
yang, Gang, Zhang, Sumin, Li, Shuai, Li, Wenju
Using multiple ignition sites and pressure sensing devices to determine the effect of air-fuel equivalence ratio on the morphology of knocking combustion 2022-01-052403/29/2022
Knocking combustion inherently presents an interaction between main flame front and end gas autoignition. Conventionally, it generates a high amplitude pressure wave traveling across the chamber, can be responsible for reducing the performance of the engine and can cause heavy damage to engine components. In order to study the phenomenon in a controllable way, experiments were performed on a specialized single-cylinder research engine fitted with a liner equipped with four equi-spaced spark plugs in the side so as to propagate various flames from those locations, and hence achieve more controlled knock events. In addition, six pressure transducers were employed at distinct locations to precisely record details of the autoignition event by monitoring pressure oscillations, and with them combustion characteristics and knock intensity. Four of the six transducers were mounted on the circumference of the liner (each next to one of the spark plugs), one was placed at the center of the
Uddeen, Kalim, Shi, Hao, Tang, Qinglong, Turner, James
Development and validation of an EHN mechanism for fundamental and applied chemistry studies2022-01-054603/29/2022
Autoignition enhancing additives have been used for years to enhance the ignition quality of diesel fuel, with 2-ethylexyl nitrate (EHN) being the most common additive. EHN also enhances the autoignition reactivity of gasoline, which has advantages for some low-temperature combustion techniques, such as Sandia’s Low-Temperature Gasoline Combustion (LTGC) with Additive-Mixing Fuel Injection (AMFI). LTGC-AMFI is a new high-efficiency and low-emissions engine combustion process based on supplying a small, variable amount of EHN into the fuel for better engine operation and control. However, the mechanism by which EHN interacts with the fuel remains unclear. In this work, a chemical-kinetic mechanism for EHN was developed and implemented in a detailed mechanism for gasoline fuels. The combined mechanism was validated against shock-tube experiments with EHN-doped n-heptane and HCCI engine data for EHN-doped regular E10 gasoline. Simulations showed a very good match with experiments. EHN
Lopez Pintor, Dario, Dec, John
Describing the Auto-Ignition Quality in Small, Air Cooled, Two Stroke Engines2022-32-006301/09/2022
Auto-ignition quality is one of the most important properties in gasoline. Auto-ignition quality is today described by the Motor Octane Number (MON) and the Research Octane Number (RON). For modern, light duty, gasoline engines it has been quite well established that RON is the most accurate number. However, no study has been performed on hand held forest and garden products, such as chainsaws. Is the auto-ignition quality best described in the same way for these engines as for light duty engines? In this paper, a matrix of six different fuels with different combinations of MON and RON values were tested on a Husqvarna 550 XP Mark II, a modern air cooled, sequential stratified scavenging 2-stroke chainsaw engine. Ignition timing sweeps were performed and knock limited spark advance (KLSA) were calculated. Then the data has been analyzed with a multi-variate analysis of KLSA against both MON and RON to try to determine how MON and RON should be combined to best describe the anti-knock
Risberg, Per, Elm, Thomas, Bergman, Mikael, Hellquist, Fredrik, Karvo, Anna, Tripathi, Rupali
A Unique Methodology to Improve the Clutch Pedal Characteristics of a Compact Sports Utility vehicle2021-28-024310/01/2021
Clutch characteristics play a vital role in ensuring a smooth and comfortable customer experience of any vehicle. The expectation is to have an optimized clutch pedal effort, reduced pedal travel, adequate modulation zone and a smooth and quick pedal returnability. However, achieving all these customer requirements is extremely challenging in some cases. In the present work, the authors discuss on improving the clutch pedal characteristics of a compact sports utility vehicle (SUV by adapting a unique approach of combining a dual torsion spring (DTS) and a return spring (RS). DTS is widely used in the clutch pedal to improve the pre-load at zero travel (1.5 kg to 2.0 kg) to improve the pedal returnability in the free-play zone. Moreover, it is also quite helpful to reduce the peak pedal effort by giving a positive assistance. However, the introduction of DTS would also bring down the pedal effort (pedal holding force) at the end of the travel affecting the pedal returnability at the
Vellandi, Vikraman, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj
Case Study on Gasoline Electric Range Extender as a Powertrain Solution for Small Commercial Goods & Passenger Carrier Vehicles in India2021-26-015809/22/2021
Case Study on Gasoline Electric Range Extender as a Powertrain Solution for Small Commercial Goods & Passenger Carrier Vehicles in India
Emran, Ashraf, vaishnav, Meghana, Lodha, Gaurav, Sharma, Vijay
Auto-ignition and Anti-Knock Evaluation of Dicyclopentadiene-PRF and TPRF Blends2021-01-116009/21/2021
The increasing demand for high-octane fuels is pushing the combustion research towards investigating new potential fuels and octane boosters. In addition to their high-octane, those additives should be environmentally friendly. In this study, the anti-knock properties of Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) as an additive to primary reference fuels (PRF) and toluene primary reference fuels (TPRF) have been investigated. The Research octane number (RON) and Motor octane number (MON) were measured using Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) engine for four different fuel blends; PRF 60 + 10% DCPD, PRF 60 + 20% DCPD, PRF 70 + 10% DCPD and TPRF 70 + 10% DCPD. In addition, homogenous charge compression ignition (HCCI) was also performed using the CFR engine to show the effect of DCPD on suppressing low temperature chemistry of reference fuels. Moreover, the ignition delay times of these mixtures were measured in the rapid compression machine (RCM) at 20 bar and stoichiometric mixtures over a temperature
Al-Khodaier, Mohannad
Evolution and Future Development of Vehicle Fuel Specification in China2021-01-120109/21/2021
Fuel quality has a significant influence on the combustion engine operation. In recent years the increasing concerns about environmental protection, energy saving, energy security and the requirements of protecting fuel injection and aftertreatment systems have been major driving forces for the Chinese fuel specification evolution. The major property changes in the evolution of Chinese national gasoline and diesel standards are introduced and the reasons behind these changes are analyzed in this paper. The gasoline fuel development from State I to State VI-B involved a decrease of sulfur, manganese, olefins, aromatics and benzene content. The diesel fuel quality improvement from State I to State VI included achieving low sulfur fuels and a cetane number (CN) increase. Provincial fuel standards, stricter than corresponding national standards, were implemented in economically developed areas in the past. Currently only Beijing is still implementing regional standards with national
Guo, Zexian, Liu, Zemin, Shuai, Shijin
Impact of Drag Reducing Agents on Gasoline Engine Deposits2021-01-118509/21/2021
Drag reducing agents (DRAs) are extensively used to increase the capacity of pipelines to transport crude oils and finished products. The amount of DRA that can be used in gasoline is limited by the tendency of the high molecular weight DRAs to form engine deposits. The use of deposit control additives (DCAs) could help to mitigate this effect, enabling increased DRA treatment rates and improved pipeline capacity. A study has been undertaken to investigate the engine test response of these additives, and has suggested that higher DRA treat rates may be possible when accompanied by a deposit control additive to address increased intake valve deposits. Conversely, the effect on combustion chamber deposits is not clear and further studies would be required. Other engine related aspects such as intake valve deposit stick have also been investigated and under the conditions tested do not appear to be adversely affected by either the DRA or the deposit control additive.
Musharah, Amani, Bennett, John
Development of an Intake Valve Deposit Test with a GM LE9 2.4L Engine2021-01-118609/21/2021
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) certifies gasoline deposit control additives for intake valve deposit (IVD) control by means of ASTM D5500, a vehicle test using a1985 BMW 318i vehicle equipped with a 1.8L I-4 port fuel injected engine. Concerns with the age of the test fleet, its relevance in the market today, and the availability of replacement parts led the American Chemistry Council’s (ACC) Fuel Additive Task Group (FATG) to begin a program to develop a replacement test. General Motors suggested developing a replacement test using a 2.4L LE9 test engine mounted on a dynamometer and committed to support the engine until 2030. Southwest Research Institute (SwRI®) was contracted to run the development program in four Phases. In Phase I, the engine test stand was configured and a test fuel was selected. In Phase II, a series of tests were run to identify a cycle that would build an acceptable level of deposits on un-additized base fuel. In Phase III, the resultant test
Shoffner, Brent, Cloud, Brandon, Kulinowski, Alexander, Hayden, Thomas, Stevens, Colleen
Evaluation and Comparison of Performance, Combustion characteristic, NOx and Particle Emission of JP-8, Gasoline and Diesel fuels in a Military Heavy duty 38.8 liters Compression Ignition Diesel Injection Engine Applying with EGR2021-01-118309/21/2021
Global emissions and stringent emission legislations have compelled us to search for alternative fuels for heavy-duty diesel engines. Evaluating the effect of JP-8 and gasoline on heavy-duty diesel engine performance and emissions is important for military combat vehicles under the "multi-fuel strategy program". Performance and fuel economy penalties are well established with the operation of a heavy-duty diesel engine with JP-8 and gasoline. Experimental studies have also suggested that JP-8 and gasoline have great potential for lowering NOx emissions. In the presented experimental study, the impact of using JP-8 and gasoline was evaluated on a military heavy-duty diesel engine. Engine combustion characteristics, performance, and emissions, especially NOx and nanoparticle emissions, were evaluated. All these parameters were compared for diesel, JP-8 and gasoline fuels by applying 7% EGR with supercharging at different load conditions for a heavy-duty, 12-cylinder, 580 kW, and 38.8
Pandey, Anand, Nandgaonkar, Milankumar, Varghese, Anil, sambasivan, Suresh, sonawane, C
Investigations into the Effects of Spark Plug Location on Knock Initiation by using Multiple Pressure Transducers2021-01-115909/21/2021
Despite a long history of development, modern spark-ignition engines are still restricted in obtaining higher thermal efficiency and better performance by knock. Knocking combustion is an unnatural combustion phenomenon caused by the autoignition of unburned air-fuel mixture ahead of the propagating flame front. This work describes investigations into the significance of spark plug location (with respect to inlet and exhaust valve position) on the knock formation mechanism. To facilitate the investigation, four spark plugs were installed in a specialized liner at four equispaced distinct locations to propagate flames from those locations, which provoked a distinct flame travel from each and thus individual autoignition profiles. Six pressure transducers were arranged to precisely record the pressure oscillations, knock intensities, and combustion characteristics. Four of the six transducers were mounted on the circumference of the liner (each next to one of the spark plugs), one was
Uddeen, Kalim, Shi, Hao, Tang, Qinglong, Turner, James
Comparison of Promising Sustainable C1-Fuels Methanol, Dimethyl Carbonate, and Methyl Formate in a DISI Single Cylinder Light Vehicle Gasoline Engine2021-01-120409/21/2021
On the way to a climate-neutral mobility synthetic fuels with their potential of a CO2-neutral production are currently in the focus of the internal combustion research. In this study the C1-fuels methanol (MeOH), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), and methyl formate (MeFo) are tested as pure C1-fuels mixtures and as blends component for gasoline. The study was performed on a single-cylinder engine in two configurations, thermodynamic and optical. As pure C1-fuels the already investigated DMC/MeFo mixture is compared with a mixture of MeOH/MeFo. DMC is replaced by MeOH, because of its benefits in laminar flame speed, ignition limits and production costs. MeOH/MeFo shows benefits in particle number (PN) emissions at a cooling water temperature of 40°C and in high load operating points. But reversed an increase of 60% in NOx emissions related to DMC/MeFo was observed in hot engine conditions. Both mixtures show no sensitivity in PN emissions for rich combustions. Neither triggered by a global
Blochum, Sebastian, Fellner, Felix, Mühlthaler, Markus, Härtl, Martin, Wachtmeister, Georg, Yoneya, Naoki, Sauerland, Henning
Novel Engine Sound Quality Evaluation Method in Bench Testing2021-01-102908/31/2021
A lot of engine sound quality issue can be classified as some specific words, such as “Rattle, Knocking, Modulation, Loud, Whistles” and etc. Engineers were trying to quantify this phenomenon with objective data. In this paper, we would like to propose a novel method that separates the engine sound quality into five different objective parameters, which covers engine noise level, whine or whistling, clatter - tick phenomenon and roughness. Based on the new method, the engine sound quality can be mapped into a final sound quality matrix - ESQM (Engine Sound Quality Matrix) to compare by the total number or by the contributors individually.
Tan, Yang, Yang, Jingling
Formaldehydes Measurement Using Laser Spectroscopic Gas Analyzer2021-01-060404/06/2021
The use of alternative fuels, especially oxygenated fuels in automobile engines, has been increasing owing to the stringent global fuel economy and emission regulations. As a result, it is concerned that the emissions of alcohols and aldehydes have increased significantly. Aldehydes, formaldehyde (HCHO) in particular, are non-criteria pollutants that are acutely toxic and/or carcinogenic. Several reports have associated HCHO with potential lung and airway cancers. Therefore, emission regulations for these compounds have already been implemented in several areas worldwide. The conventional measurement (impinger, etc.) methods for HCHO possess advantages and disadvantages. HCHO can be measured with high sensitivity if measured in a batch. However, in real-time measurements, low concentration measurements are challenging. To overcome this challenge, a real-time HCHO analyzer for low concentration measurement of 0.1 ppm resolution in real time of 10Hz was developed in this study based on
Hara, Kenji, Shibuya, Kyoji, Nagura, Naoki, Hanada, Takaaki, Tsurumi, Kazuya
Model Based Calibration Generation for Gasoline Particulate Filter Regeneration2021-01-060004/06/2021
Gasoline Particulate Filters (GPF) are widely employed in exhaust aftertreatment systems of gasoline engines to meet the stringent particulate emissions requirements of Euro 6 and China 6 standard. Optimization of GPF performance requires a delicate trade-off between fuel economy, engine performance and drivability. This results in a complex lengthy and iterative calibration development process which uses a lot of hardware resources. To improve the calibration process and reduce hardware testing, physics-based modeling of the GPF system is used. A 1-D chemical model supplemented with 3D CFD solver is utilized to evaluate pressure drop and soot burning performance characteristics of the GPF under engine dynamometer test conditions. The chemical kinetics of soot burning for the 1D model is developed using test data obtained from well controlled laboratory environment. Later, the model was applied to engine dynamometer conditions where it demonstrated robust pressure drop and soot burning
Varia, Adhyarth, Paramadhayalan, Thiyagarajan, Yadav, Anil, Kannan, Rajesh, Hattar, Rafat, Miao, Yong, Chan, Ming
High-Speed Imaging Study on the Effects of Internal Geometry on High-Pressure Gasoline Sprays2020-01-211109/15/2020
High-pressure gasoline injection can improve combustion efficiency and lower engine-out emissions; however, the spray characteristics of high-pressure gasoline (>500 bar) are not well known. Effects of different injector nozzle geometry on high-pressure gasoline sprays were studied using a constant volume chamber. Five nozzles with controlled internal flow features including differences in nozzle inlet rounding, conicity, and outlet diameter were investigated. Reference grade gasoline was injected at fuel pressures of 300, 600, 900, 1200, and 1500 bar. The chamber pressure was varied using nitrogen at ambient temperature and pressures of 1, 5, 10, and 20 bar. Spray development was recorded using diffuse backlit shadowgraph imaging methods. The results extracted to describe the spray development included spray tip penetration distance, spray tip penetration rate, and spray angle and include comparisons of the effects of operating conditions and injector geometry variants on spray
Medina, Mario, Zhou, Yichen, Fatouraie, Mohammad, Wooldridge, Margaret
Simulative Assessment of Injectors Placement and the Thermodynamic Effects of Gasoline Injection and Combustion in a Direct Dual Injection System2020-01-205409/15/2020
The paper concerns the analysis of the combustion and exhaust emission phenomena in a direct gasoline dual injection system of a SI engine for various symmetrical injector placement parameters in the combustion chamber. Achieving a good combustion process is shaped by the direct fuel injection process, whose parameters vary. The novel direct injection system, which deploys two direct injectors mounted symmetrically, was subjected to this simulative research. This article focuses on the aspect of spatial and angular position of injectors in order to perform injection and achieve fuel combustion. The injector's pseudo-optimal location has been presented along with several changed positions (3 values of injector inset: 0, 1 and 2 mm, 3 values of injector distance from the cylinder axis: 16, 17, 18 mm and 3 values of angle between injector and the cylinder axis: 42.5, 45 and 47.5 degrees - 27 combinations altogether). The research was conducted as a simulation experiment using AVL FIRE
Sidorowicz, Maciej, Pielecha, Ireneusz
Surrogate Fuel Formulation to Improve the Dual-Mode Dual-Fuel Combustion Operation at Different Operating Conditions2020-01-207309/15/2020
Dual-mode dual-fuel combustion is a promising combustion concept to achieve the required emissions and CO2 reductions imposed by the next standards. Nonetheless, the fuel formulation requirements are stricter than for the single-fuel combustion concepts as the combustion concept relies on the reactivity of two different fuels. This work investigates the effect of the low reactivity fuel sensitivity (S=RON-MON) and the octane number at different operating conditions representative of the different combustion regimes found during the dual-mode dual-fuel operation. For this purpose, experimental tests were performed using a PRF 95 with three different sensitivities (S0, S5 and S10) at operating conditions of 25% load/950 rpm, 50%/1800 rpm and 100%/2200 rpm. Moreover, air sweeps varying ±10% around a reference air mass were performed at 25%/1800 rpm and 50%/1800 rpm. Conventional diesel fuel was used as high reactivity fuel in all the cases. Moreover, commercial 95 RON gasoline was used as
Benajes, Jesus, Garcia, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Sari, Rafael
Effect of Renewable Fuel Blends on PN and SPN Emissions in a GDI Engine2020-01-219909/15/2020
To characterize the effects of renewable fuels on particulate emissions from GDI engines, engine experiments were conducted using EN228-compliant gasoline fuel blends containing no oxygenates, 10% ethanol (EtOH), or 22% ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE). The experiments were conducted in a single cylinder GDI engine using a 6-hole fuel injector operated at 200 bar injection pressure. Both PN in raw exhaust and solid PN (SPN) were measured at two load points and various start of injection (SOI) timings. Raw PN and SPN results were classified into various size ranges, corresponding to current and future legislations. At early SOI timings, where particulate formation is dominated by diffusion flames on the piston due to liquid film, the oxygenated blends yielded dramatically higher PN and SPN emissions than reference gasoline because of fuel effects. For particulates >23 nm and with optimized SOI timing, the use of oxygenated blends significantly increases SPN and conversely decreases raw PN
Etikyala, Sreelekha, Koopmans, Lucien, Dahlander, Petter
Application of Synthetic Renewable Methanol to Power the Future Propulsion2020-01-215109/15/2020
As CO2 emissions from traffic must be reduced and fossil-based traffic fuels need to phase out, bio-based traffic fuels alone cannot meet the future demand due to their restricted availability. Another way to support fossil phase-out is to include synthetic fuels that are produced from circular carbon sources with renewable energy. Several different fuel types have been proposed, while, methanol only requires little processing from raw materials and could be used directly or as a drop-in fuel for some of the current engine fleet. CO2 emissions arising from fuel production are significantly reduced for synthetic renewable methanol compared to the production of fossil gasoline. Methanol has numerous advantages over the currently used fossil fuels with high RON and flame speed in spark-ignition engines as well as high efficiency and low emissions in combustion ignition engines. Feasible options for engine development or upgrading for methanol have been presented separately in the past
Santasalo-Aarnio, Annukka, Nyari, Judit, Wojcieszyk, Michal, Kaario, Ossi, Kroyan, Yuri, Magdeldin, Mohamed, Larmi, Martti, Järvinen, Mika
Experimental Study on Knock Mechanism with Multiple Spark Plugs and Multiple Pressure Sensors2020-01-205509/15/2020
Engine knock is an abnormal phenomenon, which places barriers for modern Spark-Ignition (SI) engines to achieve higher thermal efficiency and better performance. In order to trigger more controllable knock events for study while keeping the knock intensity at restricted range, various spark strategies (e.g. spark timing, spark number, spark location) are applied to investigate on their influences on knock combustion characteristics and pressure oscillations. The experiment is implemented on a modified single cylinder Compression-Ignition (CI) engine operated at SI mode with port fuel injection (PFI). A specialized liner with 4 side spark plugs and 4 pressure sensors is used to generate various flame propagation processes, which leads to different auto-ignition onsets and knock development. Based on multiple channels of pressure signals, a band-pass filter is applied to obtain the pressure oscillations with respect to different spark strategies. Finally, the relationships among in
Shi, Hao, Uddeen, Kalim, An, Yanzhao, Johansson, Bengt
Assessing the Efficiency of a New Gasoline Compression Ignition (GCI) Concept2020-01-206809/15/2020
A practical Gasoline Compression Ignition (GCI) concept is presented that works on standard European 95 RON E10 gasoline over the whole speed/load range. A spark is employed to assist the gasoline autoignition at low loads; this avoids the requirement of a complex cam profile to control the local mixture temperature for reliable autoignition. The combustion phasing is controlled by the injection pattern and timing, and a sufficient degree of stratification is needed to control the maximum rate of pressure rise and prevent knock. With active control of the swirl level, the combustion system is found to be relatively robust against variability in charge motion, and subtle differences in fuel reactivity. Results show that the new concept can achieve very low fuel consumption over a significant portion of the speed/load map, equivalent to diesel efficiency. The efficiency is worse than an equivalent diesel engine only at low load where the combustion assistance operates. In this work, a
Cracknell, Roger, Bastaert, Dimitri, Houille, Sebastien, Châtelain, Julien, Larguier, Olivier, Beaugé, Yvon, Gente, Florian, Nicolas, Baptiste, Prevet, Sylvain, Fandakov, Alexander, Rieß, Michael, Costenoble, Ortwin, de Groot, Timo, Duffour, Florence, Pellegrini, Leonardo, Rogerson, John, Hamje, Heather
Explicit Equations to Estimate the Flammability of Blends of Diesel Fuel, Gasoline and Ethanol2020-01-212909/15/2020
Blends of gasoline, diesel fuel and ethanol (“dieseline”) have shown promise in engine studies examining low temperature combustion using compression ignition. They offer the possibility of high efficiency combined with low emissions of oxides of nitrogen and soot. However, unlike gasoline or diesel fuel alone, such mixtures can be flammable in the headspace above the liquid in a vehicle fuel tank at common ambient temperatures. Quantifying their flammability characteristics is important if these fuels are to see commercial service. The parameter of most interest is the Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) temperature, below which the headspace vapour is flammable. In earlier work a mathematical model to predict the flammability of dieseline blends, including those containing ethanol, was developed and validated experimentally. It was then used to study the flammability of a wide variety of dieseline blends parametrically. Gasolines used in the simulations had DVPEs (Dry Vapor Pressure
Bardon, Michael, Pucher, Greg, Cracknell, Roger, Pellegrini, Leonardo, Lilik, Gregory, Hamje, Heather, Rogerson, John, Dauphin, Roland
Investigation of the Effect of Glow Plugs on Low Load Gasoline PPC2020-01-206709/15/2020
Low temperature combustion (LTC), is a promising alternative for combustion engines, because it combines the positive aspects of both CI and SI engines, high efficiency and low emissions. Another positive aspect of LTC is that it can operate with gasoline of different octane ratings. Still, higher octane gasolines prove to be difficult to operate at low load conditions leading to high combustion instability (COV) that leads also to high emissions. This drawback can be reduced by increasing the intake air temperature or increasing compression ratio, but it is not a viable strategy in conventional applications. For a diesel engine running under LTC conditions, a possibility is to use the existing hardware, glow plugs in this case, to increase the in-cylinder temperature at low loads and facilitate an improved combustion event. Here, an experimental investigation is performed, to investigate how glow plug operation can affect the combustion stability of an engine at steady state operation
Dimitrakopoulos, Nikolaos, Tuner, Martin
Effect of Initial Fuel Temperature on Spray Characteristics of Multicomponent Fuel2020-01-211309/15/2020
Fuel design concept has been proposed for low emission and combustion control in engine systems. In this concept, the multicomponent fuels, which are mixed with a high volatility fuel (gasoline or gaseous fuel components) and a low volatility fuel (gas oil or fuel oil components), are used for artificial control of fuel properties. In addition, these multicomponent fuels can easily lead to flash boiling which promote atomization and vaporization in the spray process. In order to understand atomization and vaporization process of multicomponent fuels in detail, the model for flash boiling spray of multicomponent fuel have been constructed and implemented into KIVA3V rel.2. This model considers the detailed physical properties and evaporation process of multicomponent fuel and the bubble nucleation, growth and disruption in a nozzle orifice and injected fuel droplets. In this study, the results from numerical simulation using this model were compared with experimental data (liquid and
Kawano, Daisuke, Tsukiji, Kentaro, Saito, Hiroki, Matsuda, Dai, Matsumura, Eriko, Senda, Jiro
Improving the Processes of Thermal Preparation of an Automobile Engine with Petrol and Gas Supply Systems (Vehicle Engine with Petrol and LPG Supplying Systems)2020-01-203109/15/2020
This article deals with the features of the thermal preparation system application on automobile engine, the heating of which to operating temperatures is carried out on petrol, and subsequent operation on liquefied petroleum gas. The main element of the heat treatment system is a phase-transfer heat accumulator, the task of which is to minimize the engine warm-up time and, therefore, reduce petrol consumption on warm-up modes. An information system has been developed (is being used) for remote monitoring and control of the thermal preparation processes of an engine with a thermal accumulator. The results of experimental studies on a passenger vehicle engine under various operating conditions have confirmed the effectiveness of using a phase-transfer heat accumulator to reduce the heating time of the coolant and reduce the consumption of petrol to warm up the engine. In particular, it was shown, that the proposed system, where engine was warmed up on petrol to 50 ° C at an ambient
Gritsuk, Igor, Pohorletskyi, Dmytro, Mateichyk, Vasyl, Symonenko, Roman, Tsiuman, Mykola, Volodarets, Mykyta, Bulgakov, Nickolay, Volkov, Vladimir, Vychuzhanin, Vladimir, Grytsuk, Yuriy, Ahieiev, Maksym, Sadovnyk, Ivan
Analysis of Gasoline Surrogate Combustion Chemistry with a Skeletal Mechanism2020-01-200409/15/2020
Knocking combustion is a major obstacle towards engine downsizing and boosting—popular techniques towards meeting the increasingly stringent emission standards of SI engines. The commercially available gasoline is a mixture of many chemical compounds like paraffins, isoparaffins, olefins and aromatics⁠. Therefore, the modeling of its combustion process is a difficult task. Additionally, the blends of certain compounds exhibit non-linear behavior in comparison to the pure components in terms of knock resistance. These facts require further analysis from the perspective of combustion chemistry. The present work analyses the effects of blending ethanol to FACE-C gasoline. A range of pressures, temperatures, and equivalence ratios has been considered for this purpose. The open source softwares Cantera version 2.4.0 and OpenSMOKE++ Suite have been used for the simulations. Moreover, the present work proposes a skeletal chemical kinetic mechanism for six component gasoline surrogates with
Bhattacharya, Atmadeep, Kaario, Ossi, Vuorinen, Ville, Tripathi, Rupali, Sarjovaara, Teemu
Sludge and Varnish Evaluation of Polyether Amine Gasoline Fuel Additives at “Complete Fuel System Cleaner” Aftermarket Fuel Additive Concentrations2020-01-210009/15/2020
Sludge and Varnish deposits that can build up in the crankcase originate in large part from fuel and fuel components that enter the crankcase through blow-by. These deposits can lead to a variety of engine issues including piston skirt deposits, cylinder bore scuffing, stuck lifters and oil filter plugging. A test has been developed to evaluate the contribution of “Complete Fuel System Cleaner” (CFSC) aftermarket fuel additives to crankcase sludge and varnish deposit formation. CFSC aftermarket fuel additives are typically formulated with polyether amine (PEA) chemistry and at concentrations that exceed 2000ppm. Three different commercially-available CFSC products were tested, containing two different classes of PEA chemistry - propylene oxide-based PEA (“PO-PEA”) and butylene oxide-based PEA (“BO-PEA”). Two of the three products contained the same PO-PEA chemistry, but at different concentrations, to show the effect of additive dosage. Using the Sequence VG sludge and varnish test
Smocha, Ruth
An Experimental Investigation on Aldehyde and Methane Emissions from Hydrous Ethanol and Gasoline Fueled SI Engine2020-01-204709/15/2020
Use of ethanol as gasoline replacement can contribute to the reduction of nitrogen oxide (NOx) and carbon oxide (CO) emissions. Depending on ethanol production, significant reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions is possible. Concentration of certain species, such as unburned ethanol and acetaldehyde in the engine-out emissions are known to rise when ratio of ethanol to gasoline increases in the fuel. This research explores on hydrous ethanol fueled port-fuel injection (PFI) spark ignition (SI) engine emissions that contribute to photochemical formation of ozone, or so-called ozone precursors and the precursor of peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs). The results are compared to engine operation on gasoline. Concentration obtained by FTIR gas analyzer, and mass-specific emissions of formaldehyde (HCHO), acetaldehyde (MeCHO) and methane (CH4) under two engine speed, four load and two spark advance settings are analyzed and presented. Combustion phasing results based on in-cylinder pressure
Gailis, Maris, Pirs, Vilnis, Jansons, Marcis, Birzietis, Gints, Dukulis, Ilmars
The Effect of Butanol-Gasoline Blends on Harmful Engine Deposits2020-01-209309/15/2020
It is well known that alcohol based fuels may have been regarded as one of the alternative fuels because they have several physical and combustion properties similar to gasoline. Ethanol and butanol are alcohols considered as the most promising biocomponents for currently used conventional fuels. However, taking into account the numerous advantages of butanol over ethanol, and its properties, closer to those of gasoline, it is believed that it has greater application potential in the future environmentally-friendly fuels. For these reasons, butanol is under consideration to replace ethanol as an alternative fuel to gasoline especially as a gasoline blending bio-component. Therefore, this paper is focusing on the assessment of the influence of butanol addition to gasoline on harmful deposit formation in a various generation of spark ignition engine. Currently, only few research papers had discussed in very general this very important problem. Engine tests of various butanol blends with
Stepien, Zbigniew
Numerical Investigation on GDI Spray under High Injection Pressure up to 100 MPa2020-01-210809/15/2020
In recent years, the increase of gasoline fuel injection pressure is a way to improve thermal efficiency and lower engine-out emissions in GDI homogenous combustion concept. The challenge of controlling particulate formation as well in mass and number concentrations imposed by emissions regulations can be pursued improving the mixture preparation process and avoiding mixture inhomogeneity with ultra-high injection pressure values up to 100 MPa. The increase of the fuel injection pressure in GDI homogeneous systems meets the demand for increased injector static flow, while simultaneously improves the spray atomization and mixing characteristics with consequent better combustion performance. Few studies quantify the effects of high injection pressure on transient gasoline spray evolution. The aim of this work was to simulate with OpenFOAM the spray morphology of a commercial gasoline injected in a constant volume vessel by a prototypal GDI injector. Different operating conditions were
Migliaccio, Marianna, Montanaro, Alessandro, Lucchini, Tommaso, Allocca, Luigi, Paredi, Davide
Prediction of Ternary Gasoline Composition Using Light and Heavy Alcohols to Reduce Fuel Consumption and Meet Emission Standards2020-01-212509/15/2020
It is widely believed that fuel components of spark-ignition engines are mainly light alcohols. In order to change this state of affairs, it was assumed that it is possible to create fuel mixtures with heavy alcohols or light and heavy alcohols together, obtaining in latter case alternative ternary fuels. The hypothesis was adopted that such a fuel blend may contain any proportion of individual components. The truth of the hypothesis was demonstrated by preparing a number of mixtures of isooctane with ethyl and butyl alcohol, which were homogeneous and did not stratify even after prolonged storage. The research methodology adopted in this study is based on the assumption that composition of ternary fuels should be consistent with the relevant design of experiment, while assessment of the impact of composition on engine parameters should be made by operating a multi-equation mathematical model, and each of these equations, as a sub-model, must be statistically verified. Boundary
Sroka, Zbigniew Jan, Ahmed, Hussein, Sitnik, Lech, Gorniak, Aleksander, Skrętowicz, Maria, Magdziak-Tokłowicz, Monika
Lean-Burn Stratified Alcohol Fuels Engines of Power Density up to 475 kW/Liter Featuring Super-Turbocharging, Rotary Valves, Direct Injection, and Jet Ignition2020-01-203609/15/2020
Direct injection (DI) and jet ignition (JI), plus assisted turbocharging, have been demonstrated to deliver high efficiency, high power density positive ignition (PI) internal combustion engines (ICEs) with gasoline. Peak efficiency above 50% and power density of 340 kW/liter at the 15,000 rpm revolution limiter working overall λ=1.45 have been report-ed. Here we explore the further improvement in power density that may be obtained by replacing gasoline with ethanol or methanol, thanks to the higher octane number and the larger latent heat of vaporization, which translates in an increased resistance to knock, and permits to have larger compression ratios. Results of simulations are proposed for a numerical engine that uses rotary valves rather than poppet valves, while also using mechanical, rather than electric, assisted turbocharging. While with gasoline, the power density is 410-420 kW/liter, the use of oxygenates permits to achieve up to 475 kW/liter working with methanol.
Boretti, Alberto
Combustion Visualization and Experimental Study on Multi-Point Micro-Flame Ignited (MFI) Hybrid Lean-Burn Combustion in 4-Stroke Gasoline Engines2020-01-207009/15/2020
Lean-burn combustion is an effective method for increasing the thermal efficiency of gasoline engines fueled with stoichiometric fuel-air mixture, but leads to an unacceptable level of high cyclic variability before reaching ultra-low nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions emitted from conventional gasoline engines. Multi-point micro-flame ignited (MFI) hybrid combustion was proposed to overcome this problem, and can be can be grouped into double-peak type, ramp type and trapezoid type with very low frequency of appearance. This research investigates the micro-flame ignition stages of double-peak type and ramp type MFI combustion captured by high speed photography. The results show that large flame is formed by the fast propagation of multi-point flame occurring in the central zone of the cylinder in the double-peak type. However, the multiple flame sites occur around the cylinder, and then gradually propagate and form a large flame accelerated by the independent small flame in the ramp type
Fu, Xue-Qing, He, Bang-Quan, Xu, Sipeng, Chen, Tao, Zhao, Hua, Yang, Jian-Jun, Gao, Haiyang, Liu, Shuang-Xi, Fu, Xuesong
Series BEV with a Small Battery Pack and High-Efficiency ICE Onboard Electricity Production: B-Class, High-Roof Hatchback and Le Mans Hypercar Applications2020-01-225009/15/2020
Data of battery electric vehicles (BEV) with and without a range extender internal combustion engines (ICE) are reviewed and integrated with weight and performance models. A BEV with an on-board, high efficiency, electricity generator based on positive ignition (PI) ICEs is proposed to improve the uptake of the BEV targeting city commuters while improving their economic and environmental impacts. The small ICE, that is working stationary, fixed load and speed, and the generator similarly optimized for a single point operation, permit an efficiency fuel chemical-to-electric of about 49%. This is much better than producing electricity centralized from combustion fuels (average efficiency with included distribution and recharging losses), and it does not require any electric recharging infrastructure. The range of cars can be extended to about the same values of today's car with traditional combustion engines. Simple but reliable extrapolations from production BEV, with or without range
Boretti, Alberto
Blending Behavior of Hydrocarbon and Oxygenate Molecules to Optimize RON and MON for Modern Spark-Ignition Engines (SI)2020-01-214509/15/2020
Gasoline blending is known to be complicated, because individual gasoline fractions with different octane numbers, Research Octane Number (RON) or Motor Octane Number (MON) do not always blend linearly. Instead, they may blend non-linearly, in a synergistic or antagonistic manner. Even though RON and MON are regulated properties, linear and non-linear octane blending is not a broadly understood topic. The target in the developing process of a modern SI engine is to have 100% combustion efficiency which would lead to the reduction of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. Therefore, the properties of gasoline, especially RON and MON, need to be optimized to ensure proper ignition in the engine and prevent harmful autoignition reactions. There are hundreds of hydrocarbons in gasoline which have different octane numbers (ON). The explanations for these variations are the structural differences in hydrocarbon molecules that influence on their reactivity. For instance, longer n
Knuutila, Lotta, Kaario, Ossi, Larmi, Martti, Santasalo-Aarnio, Annukka, Karvo, Anna, Kiiski, Ulla
Experimental evaluation of a custom gasoline-like blend designed to simultaneously improve φ-sensitivity, RON and octane sensitivity.2020-01-113604/14/2020
φ-sensitivity is a fuel characteristic that has important benefits for the operation and control of low-temperature gasoline combustion (LTGC) engines. However, regular gasoline is only weakly φ–sensitive at naturally aspirated conditions, so intake boosting is required to take advantage of this property. Thus, there is strong motivation for designing gasoline-like blends that improve φ–sensitivity and simultaneously increase RON and octane sensitivity, to improve performance for LTGC and modern SI engines. In a previous study [SAE 2019-01-0961], a 5-component regulation-compliant fuel blend (CB#1) was computationally designed; and simulations showed promising results compared to regular E10 gasoline (RD5-87). The current study experimentally evaluates CB#1 in a LTGC research engine, and the results are compared to RD5-87. For premixed naturally aspirated conditions, the intake heating required to autoignite CB#1 was similar to RD5-87, ensuring that CB#1 can operate under these
Lopez Pintor, Dario, Dec, John, Gentz, Gerald
Detailed Chemistry based Analysis of the Water Effect on Auto-Ignition of different Octane Number Fuels2020-01-055104/14/2020
Water injection can be applied to spark ignited (SI) gasoline engines to increase the Knock Limit Spark Advance (KLSA) and improve the thermal efficiency. The KLSA potential of 6°CA to 11°CA is shown by many research groups for EN228 gasoline fuel using numerical tools and experimental methods. The influence of water is multi-layered since it reduces the in-cylinder temperature by vaporization and higher heat capacity of the fresh gas, it changes the chemical equilibrium in the end gas and prolongs the ignition delay and laminar flame speed. The aim of this work is to extend the investigation of water injection to different octane number fuels (RON0, RON20, RON50, RON80, RON90 and RON100). The investigation is performed for high load operating conditions at three different engine speeds at 1500rpm, 2000rpm and 2500rpm. The numerical toolbox used for the analysis consists of a detailed reaction scheme for gasoline fuels that was previously used to evaluate the water effect on
Franken, Tim, Seidel, Lars, Matrisciano, Andrea, Mauss, Fabian, Kulzer, André C., Schuerg, Frank
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