Browse Topic: Aviation fuels

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Aircraft and Aircraft Engine Fuel Pump Low Lubricity Fluid Endurance TestARP1797B (Current)11/26/2025
This procedure is intended to apply to fuel pumps. This procedure will be defined in terms of recommended test fluid, test setup, test conditions, and test method. This procedure may be used for other fuel system components, by testing in conjunction with the pump, which normally supplies the component inlet flow, or a substitute test pump of similar capacity. This procedure may be used, with variations in test conditions and test fluid for performing pump evaluation tests. Tests at progressively increasing pump speeds and pressures will provide design limitation data. Alternate test periods on a test pump and another pump, of a design for which actual service durability is known, will provide useful comparison data.
AE-5B Aircraft and Engine Fuel and Lubricant Sys Components
Aviation Lubricant Tribology Evaluator (ALTE) Method to Determine the Lubricating Quality of Gas Turbine LubricantsARP6255A (Current)11/26/2025
Employing ‘ball-on-cylinder’ philosophy, a non-rotating steel ball is held in a vertically mounted chuck and using an applied load is forced against an axially mounted steel cylinder. The test cylinder is rotated at a fixed speed while being partially immersed in a lubricant reservoir. This maintains the cylinder in a wet condition and continuously transports a lubricating film of test fluid to the ball and cylinder interface. The diameter of the wear scar generated on the test ball is used as a measure of the fluid’s lubricating properties. The apparatus can be used, by adjusting the operating conditions, to reproduce two different wear mechanisms; mild and severe wear, the ALTE therefore has the ability to assess a lubricant’s performance in that regard.
E-34 Propulsion Lubricants Committee
On-Board Fuel Sensing for UAS and Ground Vehicle Applications2024-01-41289/16/2024
Abstract The variability in fuel, particularly for fuel blends containing sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs), emphasizes the importance of understanding fuel properties for optimizing engine performance. This paper introduces spectroscopic fuel sensors capable of real-time estimation of jet fuel properties, mainly derived cetane number (DCN). While initially developed for unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), the paper explores their potential in ground vehicle applications: enhancing engine performance through sensing for feed-forward control and fuel property monitoring at fuel depots. The fuel sensing technologies are based on spectroscopic techniques coupled with machine learning (ML) approaches. The combination of these techniques demonstrates a promising solution for a wide spectrum of fuel applications.
Patel, Dev B., Sutar, Ashish, Abraham, Abhinav, Ambre, Dhananjay, Brezinsky, Kenneth, Lynch, Patrick T., Okada, Haruna, Stafford, Jacob M., Miganakallu, Niranjan, Sanders, Scott, Rothamer, David, Mayhew, Eric, Kim, Kenneth S.
Manufacturing of Thermoplastic Composite Parts with Press Forming TechnologyF-0080-2024-13625/7/2024
Thermoplastic composites are serious competitor for classic epoxy composites. They have comparable properties to epoxy composites, but characterize much lower processing costs. There are several methods of manufacturing the components from thermoplastic composites. One of the most interesting method in terms of efficiency is thermoforming on a press. This technology allows to product of the aircraft parts such as: ribs, brackets, covers, stiffeners. Thermoplastic composites are resistant to most solvents such as grease, oil and aviation fuel. They are also non-flammable and heat-resistant. This all makes them suitable for use in aircraft as upholstery, casing or elements around the tank. PZL Mielec has been developing press thermoforming technologies since 2016 and is the owner of the several patents in this area.
Głodzik, Marcin, Wojtuszewski, Radosław, Farbaniec, Konrad, Sienicki, Jarosław, Banaś, Aleksander, Gałaczyński, Tomasz
Implications of Sustainable Aviation Fuel for the Rotorcraft IndustryF-0079-2023-181465/16/2023
Andrejczyk, Robert
DRYING OF THERMOSETTING COMPOSITE MATERIALSARP4977 (Current)5/14/2021
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) describes standard methods for drying commercial aircraft composite structures prior to repair and gives general guidelines on use and applicability. It addresses the removal of liquids that have collected inside the structures through open damage, microcracks, or porosity and the removal of absorbed moisture from the composite material. The methods described in this document shall only be used when specified in an approved repair document or with the agreement of the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) or regulatory authority. If this document is used for the drying of materials other than thermosetting composite materials, the fitness for this purpose must be determined by the user.
AMS CACRC Commercial Aircraft Composite Repair Committee
Carbon Neutrality, Reduction and Offset-Aviation Solutions in the 21st Century2021-01-00393/2/2021
Begun in 2016, the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) was developed and agreed by International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 191 Member States, while the Airport Carbon Accreditation was developed by the Airports, Council International Europe as a carbon management system and certification. The aviation industry has its own offsetting scheme to measure aviation emissions and carbon offsetting and it has become the first industry sector which leads the world making commitments to reduce emissions. CORSIA and the Airport Carbon Accreditation are programs that impose carbon management obligations on the aviation industry. The training product to be presented, will clarify for the first time how to go beyond mere compliance and exceed the carbon reduction requirements of these instruments by achieving carbon neutrality in operations, to decrease costs, boost revenue, productivity and customer experience for airlines, airports and ground service providers. The methodology that will be explained for achieving carbon neutrality involves gains in operational efficiency and the use of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) to reduce carbon in operations, and investment in reforestation and conservation projects (forest carbon credits) to offset emissions. Innovative practices and benefits of communicating with customers and the public about carbon neutral goals, milestones and achievements will be shared and explained. This training will describe how carbon neutrality when done right decreases operational costs, reduces health and safety risks, lowers environmental risks, and generates new revenue and sales through brand trust, customer loyalty and revenue science. For the very first time, tools, technologies and solutions on how to transition to a low-cost, high-revenue producing carbon neutral operations model for airlines, airports and ground service providers will be presented.
Nyamdorj, Bolormaa, Anaka, Wayne, Stoica, Andrei, Sushant, Sushant, Ortega, Joshua, Helm, Brittney, Moreira, Paula
Jet Reference Fluid Study for Fuel Tank SealantsAIR4275B (Current)2/3/2021
This information report covers two distinct projects to formulate Jet Refrence Fluids (JRF) for testing of material compatibility. The first effort began in 1978 and focused on producing a formulation (JRF-2) that simulated JP-4 and included composition with metallic ions that reproduced chalking of fuel tank sealants. This effort resulted in the preparation of AMS2629 that defined the formulation of JRF-2 (Type 1) and the same formulation with metallic ions (Type 2). The second effort began in 2002 and focused on preparing a JRF that simulated Jet A, JP-5 and JP-8. This effort went through multiple iterations, but eventually resulted in a JRF-3 formulation composed of Jet A plus military additives spiked to 25% aromatic content and high levels of sulfur experienced in the global fuel supply. Since the metallic ions added to JRF-2 demonstrated their ability to simulate a chalking reaction, chalking was not tested with the ions added to JRF-3. AMS2629 was changed multiple times to reflect the onging changes of this project and included both Type 1 and Type 2 formulations.
AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee
Connectors, Fiber Optic, Advanced, Circular or Rectangular, Plug and Receptacle, Environment Resistant, Removable Termini/Contacts, General Specification ForAS5590B (Current)11/30/2020
This specification covers the performance requirements for a plug and receptacle. The connector inserts may contain multiple termini or multiple termini and electrical contacts. The connectors use removable termini, or removable termini and electrical contacts, and are capable of operating within a temperature range of −65 to +200 °C (see 1.2.1.1). These connectors are supplied under AS9100 reliability assurance program.
AS-3 Fiber Optics and Applied Photonics Committee
Vehicle, Magnetic Particle Inspection Petroleum BaseAMS2641D (Current)10/9/2020
This specification covers two types of refined hydrocarbon compounds in the form of liquids. This specification only covers newly manufactured materials.
AMS K Non Destructive Methods and Processes Committee
Green House Gas (GHG) Reduction Study for the Rotorcraft IndustryF-0076-2020-1634210/5/2020
The global aviation industry adopted a set of targets to mitigate CO2 emissions resulting from air transportation in 2009. The engine fuel burn is the main driver of CO2 emission; hence it will be the focus of this study. Rotorcraft are designed for supporting different types of missions or operations that are different from fixed wing aircraft. For this reason, the rotorcraft strategy for addressing the carbon impact should mainly target the new emerging technologies that will assist in reducing the fuel consumption and the deployment of Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF). This paper presents a forecast of the contribution level that could be achieved by rotorcraft industry in CO2 emission reduction in the period up to 2050. A projection of growth in civil rotorcraft fleet worldwide is provided as the starting point. Several new emerging technologies for both rotorcraft and engine together with the implementation scheme and their projected positive net impact on CO2 emission level are considered. Further, the contribution from SAF deployment in rotorcraft operation is analyzed. It is generally recognized that as much as 80% reduction in overall CO2 life cycle emission can be achieved from SAF relative to the fossil-based fuels or Conventional Aviation Fuels (CAF). However, some critical parameters used in predicting the SAF benefits remain uncertain. These pertain to fuel resources, economy, investment and policies. Therefore, consistent with previous studies, several fuel substitution scenarios are considered ranging from the most conservative to an optimistic projection.
Tjandra, Albertus, Routhieau, Vincent, Chishty, Wajid, Basset, Pierre-Marie, Peluso, Robert, Bérat, Claude
Fuel Dispensing Filter Test MethodsJ2793_202005 (Current)5/26/2020
This SAE Recommended Practice is applicable to gasoline and diesel fuel filters installed on fuel dispensing equipment, mobile or stationary. It describes a set of tests used to characterize the structural integrity, filtration performance, and reaction to water contaminant with fuel dispensing filters.
Filter Test Methods Standards Committee
Fluid, Jet ReferenceAMS2629F (Current)3/12/2020
This specification covers a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons and soluble additives.
AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee
A MATLAB Simulink Based Co-Simulation Approach for a Vehicle Systems Model Integration Architecture2020-01-00053/10/2020
In this paper, a MATLAB-Simulink based general co-simulation approach is presented which supports multi-resolution simulation of distributed models in an integrated architecture. This approach was applied to simulating aircraft thermal performance in our Vehicle Systems Model Integration (VSMI) framework. A representative advanced aircraft thermal management system consisting of an engine, engine fuel thermal management system, aircraft fuel thermal management system and a power and thermal management system was used to evaluate the advantages and tradeoffs in using a co-simulation approach to system integration modeling. For a system constituting of multiple interacting sub-systems, an integrated model architecture can rapidly, and cost effectively address technology insertions and system evaluations. Utilizing standalone sub-system models with table-based boundary conditions often fails to effectively capture dynamic subsystem interactions that occurs in an integrated system. Additionally, any control adjustments, model changes or technology insertions that are applied to any one of the connecting subsystems requires iterative updates to the boundary conditions. When evaluating a large set of trade studies, the number of boundary condition models and time to generate these models becomes intractable and affects capturing the results accurately. A single interconnected model of all the subsystems may be impractical and using additional external packages may be prohibitive in terms of cost or compatibility. This general approach requires no additional MATLAB toolboxes. Two different data interchange mechanisms are presented. A dynamic vehicle system integrated model was developed to enable customizability and flexibility. The developed co-simulation approach was combined with this flexible architecture to enable system evaluation. Example applications using the vehicle system model integrated architecture with the co-simulation approach are discussed.
Raczkowski, Brian C., Jones, Nicholas, Deppen, Tim, Lucas, Charles, Yeu, Rodney, Walters, Eric, Donovan, Adam, Patnaik, Soumya, Bodie, Mark
Green Jet Fuel Additive Made from Acetone Plus LightTBMG-361733/1/2020
A domestically generated additive was made by taking biomass-derived acetone — common nail polish remover — and using light to upgrade it to higher-mass hydrocarbons. It can be blended with conventional jet fuel to fly while providing environmental benefits.
O-Ring Machined from AMS3617 MaterialAS9772A (Current)1/13/2020
This standard establishes the dimensional and visual quality requirements, lot requirements, and packaging and labeling requirements for O-rings machined from AMS3617 polyamide material. It shall be used for procurement purposes.
A-6C2 Seals Committee
Engineered Solutions for Enclosure Sealing and InsulationTBMG-3566812/1/2019
In the aerospace and defense industries, enclosure sealing and insulation needs to meet challenging and complex requirements. For example, the EMI gaskets that are used in military touchscreens must shield sensitive electronics from electromagnetic interference (EMI) while providing electrical conductivity and ensuring environmental sealing. These enclosure gaskets must also cushion the unit from mechanical shock and avoid interfering with the display's touch function.
Considerations for Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Airborne ApplicationsAIR7765 (Current)11/18/2019
The scope of this joint EUROCAE/SAE report is to compile the considerations relating to airborne application of hydrogen fuel cells. This document provides a comprehensive analysis of the use of hydrogen as a fuel by describing its existing applications and the experience gained by exploiting fuel cells in sectors other than aviation. The use of hydrogen fuel cells in aircraft can help in meeting aviation environmental targets (including noise pollution) and can be vital to achieving efficient electrically propelled air vehicles. The experience gained with mature fuel cells in terrestrial applications and the handling of other gases in aviation, as presented herein, will help in alleviating safety concerns and in demystifying the usage of hydrogen in aviation.
AE-7F Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
Low- to High-Temperature Reaction Transition in a Small-Bore Optical Gasoline Compression Ignition (GCI) Engine03-12-05-00318/19/2019
Abstract This study shows the development of low-temperature and high-temperature reactions in a gasoline-fuelled compression ignition (GCI) engine realizing partially premixed combustion for high efficiency and low emissions. The focus is how the ignition occurs during the low- to high-temperature reaction transition and how it varies due to single- and double-injection strategies. In an optically accessible, single-cylinder small-bore diesel engine equipped with a common-rail fuel injection system, planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) imaging of formaldehyde (HCHO-PLIF), hydroxyl (OH-PLIF), and fuel (fuel-PLIF) has been performed. This was complemented with high-speed imaging of combustion luminosity and chemiluminescence imaging of cool flame and OH*. The diagnostics were performed for two different fuels including conventional diesel as a reference case and then a kerosene-based jet fuel which is a low-ignition quality fuel with cetane number of 30, firstly with single near top dead center (TDC) injection and then a double-injection strategy implementing very early injection and late injection in the same engine. For diesel combustion, it is shown that the cool-flame and HCHO signals appear from the jet axis before spreading downstream towards the bowl wall. The OH radicals present in the high-temperature reaction zones also show a similar development pattern with distinctive reaction zones forming from the jet axis and then near the bowl wall for each nozzle hole. When the reactions occur near the bowl wall, the HCHO and OH radicals coexist. Later, the high-reaction zones merge with each other due to jet-wall and jet-jet interactions. In comparison, the single-injection GCI combustion shows HCHO signals appearing from the bowl-wall region due to extended ignition delay. The OH radicals develop out of this HCHO region and show a more sequential development pattern than diesel combustion. The single-injection GCI also involves multiple ignition kernels that progressively merge to form larger reaction zones. The double-injection GCI combustion has higher charge premixing than the other cases, and due to very early first injection, the mixture homogeneity is also much higher. This is evidenced by a higher consumption rate of HCHO and faster development of OH across the entire reaction zones, indicating faster low- to high-temperature reaction transition. These fundamental findings explain why GCI combustion generates less soot and NO than diesel combustion as well as how double-injection GCI combustion achieves better low-load stability than the single-injection.
Goyal, Harsh, Zhang, Yilong, Kook, Sanghoon, Kim, Kenneth S., Kweon, Chol-Bum
Identification and Quantification of Phosphate Ester-Based Hydraulic Fluid in Jet Fuel04-12-01-00033/13/2019
Phosphate ester-based hydraulic fluids are commonly used in aviation, due to their fire-resistant properties. However, contamination of jet fuel with hydraulic fluid may cause serious engine failure, hot corrosion of metals, and swelling of elastomer and polymer seals. Identifying and quantifying hydraulic fluids in jet fuels using chromatography is challenging since common hydraulic fluids, such as ExxonMobil™ HyJet™ V and Skydrol™ LD-4, are composed of tri-butyl phosphate, the main peak of which overlaps with peaks from jet fuels in chromatograms. In this work, three techniques to separate and differentiate the jet fuel peaks from the tri-butyl phosphate peaks were developed. Two methods are based on a solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure followed by identification and quantification, which is carried out using a gas chromatograph equipped with a mass spectrometer or a flame ionization detector. The third technique is single-staged, where the separation and analysis are carried out by a gas chromatograph equipped with a polar column and a mass spectrometer. Lowest level of detection reached was 0.1 ppm of tri-butyl phosphate in jet fuel, 10 times lower than the limitations. Linearity was achieved in all analysis methods up to contamination of 100 ppm.
Stamker Gertopski, Diana, Tartakovsky, Konstantin, Rabaev, Moshe
Sleeve, Hose Assembly, Fire ProtectionAS1072F (Current)1/7/2019
This standard defines the requirements for bulk protective sleeve to provide fire resistance for aircraft hose assemblies, which will enable these assemblies to meet the requirements of AS1055. NOTE: Use of this sleeve does not eliminate the need to demonstrate that the sleeved assemblies will meet the applicable requirements of AS1055.
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Influences of Butanol Blends on Combustion and Emissions of a Small SI Engine2018-32-005810/30/2018
In the general efforts to replace the fossil fuels in transportation by renewable fuels the bioalcohols are an important alternative. The global share of Bioethanol used for transportation is continuously increasing. Butanol, a four-carbon alcohol, is considered in the last years as an interesting alternative fuel, both for Diesel and for Gasoline application. Its advantages for engine operation are: good miscibility with gasoline and diesel fuels, higher calorific value than Ethanol, lower hygroscopicity, lower corrosivity and possibility of replacing aviation fuels. In the present work research with different nButanol portions in gasoline (BuXX)* was performed on the 2-cylinder SI engine with variations of several parameters on engine dynamometer. At different steady state operating points were varied: spark timing (αz), air excess factor (λ) and EGR-rate. Furthermore, the conversion rates and light-off of a 3-way-catalyst were investigated. As research tools the combustion pressure indication and the exhaust gas analysis were used. In the steady state operation, it was found that Bu-blends generally reduce the emissions of CO, HC, NOx in untreated exhaust gas and have a very little influence on catalytic conversion rates of the 3-way-catalyst. At lower engine part load, “Bu” shortens the inflammation lag and reduces the cyclic dispersion of combustion. Nevertheless, this advantage disappears at higher engine loads and with higher “Bu” portions. The present paper shows some examples of the most important results.
Czerwinski, Jan, Güdel, Martin, Engelmann, Danilo, Pechout, Martin
Novel Turboelectric Aircraft DesignTBMG-288615/1/2018
NASA Langley Research Center has developed a novel aircraft design that can carry 150+ passengers over a range of 3,500 nautical miles. Key features include a turboelectric propulsion system, twin underwing turbofans, and a rear-fuselage, electrically driven, boundary layer ingesting fan. The design is developed for single-aisle-class aircraft (the largest commercial transport class in the world) to significantly reduce fuel burn compared to current aircraft.
Guidance on the Impact of Fuel Properties on Fuel System Design and OperationAIR7484 (Current)2/24/2018
This document describes a number of jet fuel properties and where applicable gives the specification limits for Jet A and Jet A-1, though the properties are generally applicable to all turbine fuels. Later versions of this document will give more details on specification limits for other similar fuels, such as TS-1, where they differ from Jet A and Jet-A1. It gives details about the possible impact on airframe fuel system design.
AE-5A Aerospace Fuel, Inerting and Lubrication Sys Committee
The Application of New Approaches to the Analysis of Deposits from the Jet Fuel Thermal Oxidation Tester (JFTOT)2017-01-229310/8/2017
Studies of diesel system deposits continue to be the subject of interest and publications worldwide. The introduction of high pressure common rail systems resulting in high fuel temperatures in the system with the concomitant use of fuels of varying solubilizing ability (e.g. ULSD and FAME blends) have seen deposits formed at the tip of the injector and on various internal injector components. Though deposit control additives (DCAs) have been successfully deployed to mitigate the deposit formation, work is still required to understand the nature and composition of these deposits. The study of both tip and internal diesel injector deposits (IDID) has seen the development of a number of bench techniques in an attempt to mimic field injector deposits in the laboratory. One of the most used of these is the Jet Fuel Thermal Oxidation Tester or JFTOT (ASTM D3241). The tester was originally designed to assess the oxidation of jet fuel, based on the principle that low stability fuels produce deposits that form on metal surfaces. Recently it has been modified so that under suitable conditions it may be used to determine the deposit forming potential of diesel fuels. The JFTOT technique has been used by a number of groups to try and understand diesel injector deposits. The ineradicable nature of the material on the JFTOT tube has seen the deposits analyzed by laser scanning microscopy, ellipsometry and recently infra-red microscopy. Other methods have been invasive involving either solvent washing or scraping off the deposit. In this paper other techniques for the analysis of deposits will be described yielding both chemical and metrological characteristics of the deposits. Fourier Transform Infrared Microscopy (FTIRM), and Time-of- Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToFSIMS) will be used to describe the surface characteristics. Measurements from a Profile meter will be used to estimate deposit surface roughness and data from Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) will be employed to describe the morphology. The final techniques described will be Direct Analysis In Real Time Mass Spectrometry (DARTMS) using ambient mass spectrometry. and Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass spectrometry (FTICRMS) The advantage of the DART method is that mixtures and objects can be subjected to mass spectrometric analysis with the minimum of pre-treatment and sample preparation. Thus the technique is well suited for analyzing deposits on JFTOT tubes as it requires little sample preparation. A number of studies of materials deposited on JFTOT tubes will be described showing the suitability of these techniques for analyzing and providing the potential characterization of JFTOT deposits. The FTICRMS will be used to assign species in the JFTOT test fuels both pre and post test.
Barker, Jim, Reid, Jacqueline, Angel Smith, Sarah, Snape, Colin, Scurr, David, Langley, Graham, Patel, Krina, Carter, Anastarsia, Lapthorn, Cris, Pullen, Frank
Aircraft Fuel System Design Using 1D and 3D Methods: An Enabler for Thermal Management2017-01-20399/19/2017
Thermal management on aircraft has been an important discipline for several decades. However, with the recent generations of high performance aircraft, thermal management has evolved more and more into a critical performance and capability constraint on the whole aircraft level. Fuel continues to be the most important heat sink on high performance aircraft, and consequently the requirements on thermal models of fuel systems are expanding. As the scope of modeling and simulation is widened in general, it is not meaningful to introduce a new isolated modeling and simulation capability. Instead, thermal models must be derived from existing model assets and eventually enable integration across several physical domains. This paper describes such an integrated approach based on the Modelica Fuel System Library and the 3DExperience Platform. It combines 1D and 3D methodology and delivers capabilities normally limited to complex and time-consuming CFD computations at the speed and convenience of system simulations. The paper provides a description of the modeling library and puts thermal management in context with more general model-based design of aircraft fuel systems. It describes in detail an aircraft fuel sub-system model including thermal aspects and illustrates an industrial application in the design of high performance aircraft.
Sielemann, Michael, Lee, Changsoo, LeBrun, Victor-Marie, Ahn, Chiwoo, Colleoni, Arnaud, Lee, Dongkyu, Lee, JeongSeok, Nguyen, Anh, Proelss, Katrin, Yoon, Hyon Min
Self-Sealing Breakaway Valves for Crash-Resistant Aircraft Fuel and Oil SystemsARP1616B (Current)8/31/2017
This document defines design, performance, and test criteria for self-sealing breakaway valves for use in crash-resistant aircraft fuel systems.
AE-5A Aerospace Fuel, Inerting and Lubrication Sys Committee
Aerospace & Defense Technology: August 201717AERP088/3/2017
The Rapid Rise of Beryllium-Aluminum Alloys in Aerospace Aeroacoustic Simulation Delivers Breakthroughs in Aircraft Noise Reduction Using System Simulation to Manage Increasing Thermal Loads on Aircraft Fuel Systems Ensuring the Compliance of Avionics Software with DO-178C Microwave Photonic Notch Filter Helps Ensure Critical Mission Success Measuring Propellant Stress Relaxation Modulus Using Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer New testing technique requires less material, gives more accurate results. Combustion Characteristics of Hydrocarbon Droplets Induced by Photoignition of Aluminum Nanoparticles Test methodology allows analysis of combustion dynamics for subscale rocket injectors under super critical conditions. Vapor Pressure Data and Analysis for Selected Organophosphorous Compounds: DIBMP, DCMP, IMMP, IMPA, EMPA, and MPFA Determining the thermophysical properties of chemical warfare agent simulants can help evaluate the performance of defensive equipment. Coupling of Coastal Wave Transformation and Computational Fluid Dynamics Models for Seakeeping Analysis New analytical tools improve understanding of vessel operating environments in the littorals. Assessment of Non-traditional Isotopic Ratios by Mass Spectrometry for Analysis of Nuclear Activities Technique can be used to distinguish between commercial nuclear reactor fuel cycles, fuel cycles for weapons grade plutonium, and products from nuclear weapons explosions.
Coupling Assembly, Threadless, Flexible, Fixed Cavity, Self-Bonding, Procurement SpecificationAS1650D (Historical)7/10/2017
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) defines the requirements for a threadless, flexible, self-bonding coupling assembly which, when installed on machined fixed cavity ferrules, provides a flexible connection for joining tubing and components in aircraft fuel, vent or other systems. This assembled coupling, hereafter referred to as the assembly, and is designed for use from -65 to +400 °F and at 125 psig nominal operating pressure.
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Kilohertz Mie Scattering and OH* Chemiluminescence Imaging of JP-8 Multiple Injections Using a 250 MPa Fuel Injector2017-01-08323/28/2017
The objective of the study was to investigate the spray and combustion characteristics of Jet Propellant-8 (JP-8) using a high-pressure fuel injector which is capable of up to 250-MPa fuel injection pressure. Experiments were performed in a constant-pressure flow-through combustion chamber at the ambient conditions of 825 K and 6 MPa for the oxygen concentration of 0 and 21%. JP-8 was injected over a range of fuel injection pressures from 50 to 250 MPa for single injection events to establish a baseline operation. Pilot and post injections were used to study the effect of multiple injections on spray and combustion of the high-pressure fuel injector. Both pilot and post injection separation times and quantities were systematically varied. JP-8 spray and combustion events were imaged at 75 kHz using a combination of Mie scattering and OH* chemiluminescence imaging. The Mie scattering results showed that spray atomization and mixing was enhanced with increasing fuel injection pressure which was indicated as thinner and more uniform liquid columns. For non-reacting multiple injections, both pilot and post injections showed shorter liquid penetration lengths which were due to incomplete needle lift for these small injection quantities. Liquid penetration length of the main injection was slightly decreased as the pilot separation time was shortened. At higher fuel injection pressure, the main injection showed decreased hydraulic delay at the shortest pilot separation time. Furthermore, liquid penetration length of the post injection decreased at higher fuel injection pressure. Spray patterns became more uniform both within an injection and across injection events at the higher fuel pressures. Ignition delay decreased almost linearly with increasing fuel injection pressure. The OH* intensity showed that pilot injection led to more uniform main combustion which may result in improved combustion stability. Ignition delay increased at higher fuel injection pressure for the double injection events due to leaner mixtures with faster combustion at higher fuel pressure. Higher fuel injection pressure retarded the post combustion and post combustion became insensitive to the post separation time.
Temme, Jacob, Coburn, Vincent, Kweon, Chol-Bum
Fluid, Jet ReferenceAMS2629E (Historical)2/8/2017
This specification covers a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons and soluble additives.
AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee
Alternative Fuels: A Review About Anhydrous and Hydrous Ethanol Properties2016-36-040910/25/2016
Since 70′, ethanol has risen as an alternative and ecological fuel, it has also been pointed as a potential candidate for replacing partial, or even totally, oil derived fuel application on internal combustion engines, supporting automotive industry. Ethanol is obtained from renewable sources and contributes to pollutants emission reduction in the atmosphere. In Brazil, it is obtained from sugarcane, but it can be obtained from others vegetable growing, such as beet or corn, common in other countries. For Brazilian automotive applications two types of ethanol are commonly applied: anhydrous, that contains at most 0.4% water in volume and has been used in gasoline blends up to 27%; and hydrous, with a maximum water content of 4.9% in volume, used as a substitute to gasoline on flex fuels engines. Although the widely application of ethanol, there is still lack of data available in literature regarding the fuel properties. The purpose of this research work is to gather the information published until now regarding anhydrous and hydrous ethanol as well as its blends. Furthermore, the investigation is enhanced with new data obtained at laboratory for respective fuel properties.
Martins, Fernanda Pinheiro, Lacava, Pedro Teixeira, de Andrade, Claudia Regina, Garzuzi, Sandra
Derived Cetane Number, Distillation and Ignition Delay Properties of Diesel and Jet Fuels Containing Blended Synthetic Paraffinic Mixtures2016-01-907610/24/2016
Aviation turbine fuel and diesel fuel were blended with synthetic paraffins produced via two pathways and the combustion properties measured. Both aviation and diesel fuel containing synthetics produced from the fermentation of sugars, had a linear response to blending with decreasing ignition delay times from 5.05 - 3.52 ms for F-34 and 3.84 - 3.52 ms for F-76. For the same fuels blended with synthetics produced from the fermentation of alcohols, ignition delay times were increased out to 18.66 ms. The derived cetane number of the blends followed an inversely similar trend. Additionally, simulated distillation using ASTM D2887 at high synthetic paraffinic kerosene blend ratios resulted in the recovery temperatures being incorrectly reported. In this case, higher recovery volumes were at lower temperatures than earlier recovery points i.e. T90< T50, for SIP-SPK.
Abanteriba, Sylvester, Yildirim, Ulas, Webster, Renee, Evans, David, Rawson, Paul
Energy Storage for Commercial Hybrid Electric Aircraft2016-01-20149/20/2016
Energy storage options for a hybrid electric commercial single aisle aircraft were investigated. The propulsion system features twin Geared Turbofan™ engines in which each low speed spool is assisted by a 2,500 HP electric motor during takeoff and climb. During cruise, the aircraft is powered solely by the turbine engines which are sized for efficient operation during this mission phase. A survey of state of the art energy storage options was conducted. Battery, super-capacitor, and flywheel metrics were collected from the literature including Specific Energy (Wh/kg), Volumetric Energy Density (Wh/L), Specific Power (W/kg), Cost ($/kWh), and Number of Cycles. Energy storage in fuels was also considered along with various converters sized to produce a targeted quantity of electric power. The fuel and converters include fuel cells (both proton exchange membrane and solid oxide operating on hydrogen or on jet fuel) and a turbogenerator (jet fuel or LNG). The various energy storage options were compared across a range of stored energy on the basis of weight. The selection of a lightweight energy storage technology depends on power and quantity of energy storage. A turbogenerator auxiliary power unit has the best energy and power density for the application. The fuel cells tend to be heavy options due to low specific power. PEM fuel cells operating on compressed or liquid hydrogen are lighter weight than SOFCs, however, PEMFCs are comparable to batteries at the energy storage design point of 1500 kWh. Applications requiring low detectability and long duration favor PEM fuel cells.
Rheaume, Jonathan M., Lents, Charles
Ball-On-Cylinder (BOC) Aircraft Turbine Fuel Lubricity TesterAIR1794A (Historical)5/13/2016
This metric SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) details a ball-on-cylinder (BOC) test device and specifies a method of rating the relative lubricity of aviation turbine fuel samples. The BOC produces a wear scar on a stationary steel ball by forcing it with a fixed load against a fuel wetted steel test ring in a controlled atmosphere. The test ring is rotated at a fixed speed so its surface is wetted by a momentary exposure to the fluid under test. The size of the wear scar is a measure of the test fluid lubricity and provides a basis for predicting friction or wear problems.
AE-5B Aircraft and Engine Fuel and Lubricant Sys Components
Rings, Sealing, Phosphonitrilic Fluoroelastomer (FZ) Aviation Fuel-Resistant 75 - 85 Shore AAMS7284/2A (Current)5/3/2016
This specification covers phosphonitrilic fluoroelastomer (FZ) in the form of molded rings. Primarily for use in aircraft fuel systems operating from -55 to +150 degrees C (-67 to +302 degrees F).
AMS CE Elastomers Committee
Rings, Sealing, Phosphonitrilic Fluoroelastomer (Fz) Aviation Fuel ResistantAMS7284B (Current)5/3/2016
This specification and its associated detail specifications cover phosphonitrilic fluoroelastomers (FZ) in the form of molded rings.
AMS CE Elastomers Committee
Rings, Sealing, Phosphonitrilic Fluoroelastomer (FZ) Aviation Fuel Resistant 65 - 75 Shore AAMS7284/1A (Current)5/3/2016
This specification covers a phosphonitrilic fluoroelastomer (FZ) in the form of molded rings. Primarily for use in aircraft fuels systems operating from -55 to +150 degrees C (-67 to 302 degrees F).
AMS CE Elastomers Committee
Spray Characterization and Ignition Delay Measurements of JP-8 and IPK in a Constant-Pressure Flow Chamber2016-01-07364/5/2016
This research compares the spray development and combustion characteristics of jet propellant 8 (JP-8) and iso-paraffinic kerosene (IPK) through a range of diesel engine in-cylinder operating conditions. Non-reacting spray experiments were performed in a constant-pressure flow chamber with 99% nitrogen gas composition at constant temperature (900 K) and densities ranging from 11-56 kg/m3. Near-simultaneous, high-speed Mie and schlieren images of the spray were acquired to measure the liquid and vapor penetration lengths of the non-reacting jet. Reacting experiments, consisting of photodiode measurements and intensified high-speed movies of OH* chemiluminescence, were performed at the same thermodynamic conditions as the non-reacting experiments, except with a 21%/79% oxygen/nitrogen ambient gas composition. Measurements of the rate of injection, issued from a single-hole axial common-rail fuel injector, showed negligible differences between the fuels. The non-reacting liquid length of IPK was approximately 20% shorter than JP-8 for the range of tested conditions, which was consistent with the average difference in volatility between the fuels. The ignition delay, determined from the photodiode record, was up to 80% longer for IPK fuel at low density conditions. Additionally, the lift-off length of IPK was measured to be approximately 50% more sensitive to ambient pressure than JP-8. These results provide fundamental information for the calibration and optimization of military diesel engines operating on conventional and alternatively sourced jet fuels.
Tess, Michael, Kurman, Matthew, Kweon, Chol-Bum
Blending Octane Evaluation of Fuel Ethers: A Literature Review2016-01-08834/5/2016
A thorough bibliographic survey was carried out to collect literature-available information about blending octane numbers (BONs) of most widely used ethers by the refining industry (mainly MTBE and ETBE). The intention was to review the publicly reported BONs values, to suggest the most appropriate figures for future reference, while also understanding the causes of the differences. Summary tables feature all BON values, either explicitly reported in literature or calculated based on experimental results. Due to synergistic intermolecular interactions with hydrocarbons, BONs typically depend on base stock composition. The octane gain tends to grow as the paraffin content in the base stock increases. Moreover BONs tend to decrease as the octane numbers (ON) of the base stock increase. From a refining industry practical utilization viewpoint, the relevant BONs to be considered should logically be those referring to a typical on-spec gasoline composition (relevant “cluster”), while atypical base stock formulations add a wider scientific dimension. The average values presented in this review have been obtained by normalizing the cluster sub-set of literature-featured blending Octane Numbers of the four ethers. Such figures should be considered as the most reliable “typical” BONs value, to be used as general reference when comparing different octane enhancers alternatives. The suggested most appropriate values are 116.5 BRON and 102.1 BMON for MTBE, 118.8 BRON and 103.3 BMON for ETBE, 110.0 BRON and 99.1 BMON for TAME.
Mirabella, Walter, Avella, Francesco, Di Girolamo, Marco, Abbott, Tim, Busch, Oliver
A Technical Evaluation of New Renewable Jet and Diesel Fuels Operated in Neat Form in Multiple Diesel Engines2016-01-08294/5/2016
The US Navy is in the process of evaluating Catalytic Hydrothermal Conversion Jet fuel (CHCJ-5) for inclusion in the JP-5 specification, MIL-DTL-5624, and evaluating Catalytic Hydrothermal Conversion Diesel fuel (CHCD-76) for inclusion in the F-76 specification, MILDTL-16884. CHC fuels are produced from renewable feedstocks such as triglycerides, plant oils, and fatty acids. A Catalytic Hydrothermolysis process chemically converts these feedstocks into a mixture of paraffins, cycloparaffins, aromatics, olefins, and organic acids. The resulting mixture is then hydroprocessed and fractionated to produce a kerosene (or diesel) product having a distillation profile comparable to traditional petroleum derived fuels. The end product is a fuel that is able to meet the jet (or diesel) chemical and physical MIL-SPEC requirements without blending with conventional petroleum fuels. Detailed physical and chemical characterizations are presented showing these new renewable fuels in neat form have similar properties as compared to their natural petroleum counterparts (JP-5 and F-76). Engine testing was performed using three highly instrumented engines (Waukesha, Yanmar and AM General). CHCJ-5 was compared to the combustion performance of JP-5, while CHCD-76 was compared to conventional diesel NATO F-76. Engine data from this testing was processed to compare the fuels on the basis of relative combustion metric changes. The results of this testing and analysis show that, in general, ignition delay is similar to or slightly shorter than the base fuel. Combustion phasing shifts are quite small, with the maximum rate of heat release showing a modest decrease with the CHC fuels due to their moderately higher cetane values. Overall, both CHC fuels have combustion changes that fall within Navy acceptance standards. Engine operation (including cold starting) with these new renewable neat fuels was similar to the base natural petroleum fuels with no concerns noted.
McDaniel, Andrew, Dickerson, Terrence, Luning-Prak, Dianne, Hamilton, Len, Cowart, Jim
Fusible-Core PolymerTBMG-2313810/1/2015
Egmond Plastic Alkmaar, The Netherlands +31-72-5614644
Effects of Ice Accretion in an Aircraft Protective Mesh Strainer of a Fuel Pump2015-01-24499/15/2015
This paper focuses on the investigation of the nature, process and effects of ice accretion on different feed pump strainers upstream of the aircraft feeding system. A suitable test rig was designed to circulate Jet A-1 containing water/ice contaminants at cold temperatures through the strainers. Following an extensive literature review, a number of screening tests were performed. These provided a strong base for an exhaustive study of fuel icing in the dynamic environment offered by the test rig. The effects of the rate of fuel cooling on the nature of ice were examined. As expected, it was observed that the yield of ice generated on the mesh screen increased with the water concentration in the fuel. It was also revealed that at higher cooling rates, a crust of snow formed on top of softer ice on the mesh screen. This phenomenon induced a slight drop in pressure across the mesh screen, indicating that the permeability of the crust layer is lower, but still allowed the passage of fuel through its structure. Comparing the particulate contamination experiments with the first set of results of uncontaminated fuel, it was observed that when there are foreign particles suspended in jet fuel, there is a higher yield of ice generated and accreted on the pump strainer
Baena, Solange, Lam, Joseph K-W, Lawson, Craig
Water Solubility in Different Alternative Jet Fuels: A Comparison with Petroleum-Based Jet Fuel2015-01-25639/15/2015
The paper presents an extensive assessment of the hygroscopic characteristics of a number of alternative jet fuel blends. These are blended with conventional Jet A-1 to conform with current aviation standards at a 50:50 ratio by volume, except for DSHC (Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbon), which is blended at 10% DSHC and 90% Jet A-1. Given the lack of information available on the water solubility of alternative jet fuels, an effective analysis of experimental data about this characteristic in six different alternatives was performed. These included four ASTM approved alternatives (two Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthetics from coal and natural gas, one HEFA (Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids) derived from camelina and DSHC. An extra two alternatives currently under consideration for ASTM approval were also tested; ReadiJet and an ATJ (Alcohol to Jet). Water solubility-temperature curves were created and compared to the Jet A-1 reported in the CRC (Coordinating Research Council) Handbook of Aviation Fuel Properties. All samples were subjected to a temperature range of −20°C to 50°C, significantly wider than that illustrated in recent studies and the CRC Handbook. The preliminary results suggest that the alternative fuel blends followed a different pattern to the CRC Jet A-1 for water solubility at different temperatures. Unlike the conventional fuels, the curves did not fit an exponential trend. The preliminary results need to be verified to assert confidence in the results with further testing. The results for the water absorption between −20°C and 50°C for each alternative blend were measured and it was found that DSHC:Jet A-1 absorbed the most water, and ReadiJet:Jet A-1 the least. Further work is planned to validate the trends observed.
Charro, Alberto, Baena, Solange, Lam, Joseph K-W
Characterization of the Ultrafine and Black Carbon Emissions from Different Aviation Alternative Fuels2015-01-25629/15/2015
This study reports gaseous and particle (ultrafine and black carbon (BC)) emissions from a turbofan engine core on standard Jet A-1 and three alternative fuels, including 100% hydrothermolysis synthetic kerosene with aromatics (CH-SKA), 50% Hydro-processed Esters and Fatty Acid paraffinic kerosene (HEFA-SPK), and 100% Fischer Tropsch (FT-SPK). Gaseous emissions from this engine for various fuels were similar but significant differences in particle emissions were observed. During the idle condition, it was observed that the non-refractory mass fraction in the emitted particles were higher than during higher engine load condition. This observation is consistent for all test fuels. The 100% CH-SKA fuel was found to have noticeable reductions in BC emissions when compared to Jet A-1 by 28-38% by different BC instruments (and 7% in refractory particle number (PN) emissions) at take-off condition. BC emissions from this fuel were lower than from Jet A-1 by 45-50% (and 25-26% in refractory PN) at idle or cruise condition. The 100% CH-SKA fuel was observed to have a minimum influence on non-refractory PN emissions. A lower volume in naphthalene in the 100% CH-SKA fuel was hypothesized to be one of the factors attributing to the reduced BC emissions when compared to Jet A-1 emissions. For the 50% HEFA-SPK fuel, BC emissions were lower than the BC emissions from Jet A-1 by 58-86% for various engine load conditions. BC emissions from the 100% FT-SPK fuel were lower than from the Jet A-1 by 70-98%. Both the refractory and non-refractory PN emissions from these fuels were lower by comparable magnitude when compared to that from Jet A-1.
Chan, Tak W., Chishty, Wajid, Davison, Craig, Buote, David
Finite Element Analysis Simulation of a Fireproof Test for an Aircraft Propulsion Engine Mount Structure Made of Titanium2015-01-26219/15/2015
Aviation regulations requires that engine mounts, and other flight structures located in designated fire zones must be constructed of fireproof material so that they are capable of withstanding the effects of fire. Historically, steel is defined as being inherently fireproof, however, titanium was not. Therefore, a fireproof test was conducted using 6AL-4V titanium structure for the attachment of the propulsion system on a mid-size business jet to satisfy FAA Federal Aviation Requirement 25.865. To determine if the titanium structure would be able to support normal operating loads during the fire event, finite element analysis was performed on the titanium structure simulating the fire test. The fire test simulates a fire on the aircraft from the propulsion system by using a burner with jet fuel exposing the component to a 2000 °F (1093°C) flame. The 2000 °F (1093°C) Flame is calibrated based on FAA Advisory Circular AC20-135. The 2000 °F (1093°C) flame is modeled as a series of convection coefficients across the entire surface of the component. The conductive and convective thermal properties are used for the finite element analysis (FEA) model to simulate the heat transfer effects of the flame. A thermal transient analysis was performed to determine the component temperatures and correlation to the fire test showed excellent agreement. The peak temperatures in the vicinity of the flame on the titanium structure was about 1500 °F (816°C) but much lower at locations that were shielded by the structure. The transient thermal analysis also showed that after about 10 minutes the temperatures appeared to be at steady state conditions.
Leicht, Douglas
The Jet Fuel Hydrodynamic Cavitation Bubble Size with Cavitation Power and Energy from Rayleigh-Plesset Equation2015-01-23899/15/2015
Cavitation erosion in aircraft engine and control systems is a major concern in hydrodynamic power units. In developing turbulent flow of low pressure and high velocities, a certain amount of cavitation erosion is not unusual. Cavitation can occur with the presence of fuel vapor or air bubbles dissolved in the fuel tank that are transported through the system. Cavitation erosion is caused by collapse of the bubble, which occurs violently and creates a pressure shock wave of fluid. Striking a solid surface, the shock wave can cause progressive damage if it persists. A kinetic cavitation power rate is developed to make a meaningful estimation of the cavitation erosion rate theoretically, which then can be validated with laboratory experiments. Theoretically, we manipulate parameters such as bubble size, collapse pressure, and energy for a given fuel system design, finding variation within each component of the system. However, cavitation erosion rates vary wildly even when relative developments and comparisons are made. These variations are attributed to the simplicity of governing equations, boundary condition settings, and bubble sizing and geometry assumption differences of given derivation formulations. The jet fuel's bubble size, collapsing pressure, and surrounding fluid pressure, influenced by fuel properties due to temperature variation, appear to be the key factors in cavitation power and energy when predicting component life and degradation of efficiency in engine control systems.
Ni, William W., Cass, Michael, Bartholme, Daniel
A Fuel Surrogate Validation Approach Using a JP-8 Fueled Optically Accessible Compression Ignition Engine2015-01-09064/14/2015
An experimental fuel surrogate validation approach is proposed for a compression ignition application, and applied to validate a Jet-A POSF 4658 fuel surrogate. The approach examines the agreement of both physical and chemical properties of surrogate and target fuels during validation within a real compression-ignition engine environment during four sequential but distinct combustion phases. In-cylinder Mie Scattering measurements are applied to evaporating sprays to compare the behavior of the surrogate, its target fuel, and for reference, n-heptane. Early mixture formation and low temperature reaction behavior were investigated using 2-D broadband chemiluminescence imaging, while high temperature ignition and combustion chemistry were studied using OH chemiluminescence imaging. The optical measurements were combined with cylinder pressure-based combustion analysis, including ignition delay and premixed burn duration, to validate the global behavior of the surrogate. Engine-out UHC, NO and soot emissions were also compared at different intake conditions, injection pressures and injection strategies. The proposed approach can provide validation data for further numerical engine combustion modeling and kinetic mechanism validation. The results show the surrogate was able to match the spray behavior, high temperature radical distribution, high temperature ignition delay, and the premixed burn duration of the target Jet-A fuel. Reasonable agreement was observed between low temperature ignition delay and radical distribution. The surrogate also captures the trend of the effects of intake conditions and injection pressure when single or double injections are used.
Yu, Xin, Luo, Xi, Jansons, Marcis, Kim, Doohyun, Martz, Jason, Violi, Angela
Peak-Seeking Control MethodTBMG-2107712/1/2014
Peak-seeking algorithms optimize physical processes in real time and are widely used throughout a variety of industries. However, measuring associated parameters in changing conditions, and responding to them appropriately, is difficult because the measurements are typically distorted by noise. This technology addresses that problem by employing a time-varying Kalman filter. The filter is an algorithm previously developed to estimate unknown parameters within systems that are intrinsically random and uncertain. The Kalman filter is excellent at finding estimates when it encounters noisy signals. As a minimal-variant filter, it inherently produces the best estimates of a function with the smallest amount of variation from the true value. Thus, the filter can help accurately determine the optimal coordinates of the peak- seeking function as conditions in the environment change.
SAE Vehicle Electrification: Novmeber 12, 201414VED1111/12/2014
Harley-Davidson's e-bike shocker (video) Is the motorcycle market ready for a Harley-Davidson EV? Project LiveWire was designed to provide answers, said Chief Engineer Jeff Richlen. Airbus has its eye on the future of cleaner flight CleanSky 2 targets are to increase aircraft fuel efficiency enough to reduce CO2 emissions by 20-30% and reduce aircraft NOx and noise emissions by 20-30% compared to newly designed aircraft entering into service in 2014-or essentially halve 2005 CO2 emissions levels by 2050. Soul EV extends the range frontier (video) Specially formulated NCM battery cells are key in giving the vehicle class-leading EV range while enabling engineers to fit a high-energy-density battery pack underfloor with little sacrifice of passenger cabin space.
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