Browse Topic: Lubricant contamination

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Gas Turbine Engine Lubricant Specifications: Current Technical Review and Future DirectionAIR6056A (Current)11/26/2025
This AIR describes the current scientific and engineering principles of gas turbine lubricant performance testing per AS5780 and identifies gaps in our understanding of the technology to help the continuous improvement of this specification.
E-34 Propulsion Lubricants Committee
Procedure for the Determination of Particulate Contamination in Hydraulic Fluids by the Control Filter Gravimetric ProcedureARP785B (Current)12/3/2020
This ARP describes a gravimetric method for the determination of particulate contaminant in hydraulic fluids by the control filter technique. NOTE: With this method, detectable contamination levels down to 0.2 mg (7.0 × 10-6 ounces) per sample can be obtained with a standard deviation of ±0.1 mg (±3.5 × 10-6 ounces).
A-6C1 Contamination and Filtration Committee
Aerospace Fluid Power - Contamination Sensitivity - Considerations for Establishing Test Procedures for Flight Control ActuatorsARP5941 (Current)10/9/2020
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) describes the design conditions under which tests should be conducted to demonstrate satisfactory performance of a flight critical servo-actuator under the maximum allowable particulate contamination in the associated airplane hydraulic system. Additionally, this document also describes the recommended tests and the required acceptance criteria.
A-6B1 Hydraulic Servo Actuation Committee
Studying Ignition Delay Time of Lubricant Oil Mixed with Alcohols, Water and Toluene in IQT and CVCC2020-01-14224/14/2020
The auto-ignition of liquid fuel and lubricant oil droplets is considered as one of the possible sources of pre-ignition. Researchers are continually finding new ways to form advanced lubricant oil by changing its composition and varying different oil additives to prevent the occurrence of this event. This study investigates additives for lubricants to suppress its auto-ignition tendency. Three sets of mixtures were prepared. The first set of mixtures were prepared by adding different alcohols namely ethanol, and methanol to the commercial lubricant oil (SAE 15W-40) in ratio of 1 - 5 % by vol The second set of mixtures were prepared by mixing SAE 15W-40 with aforementioned alcohols (1 % vol.) and H2O (1 % vol.). Lastly, the third set of mixtures were prepared by adding toluene to SAE 15W-40 in (1 % - 5% by vol.). Two experimental setups were used in the current work. An Ignition Quality Tester (IQT) was used to investigate the mixtures’ ignition delay time (IDT) following standard ASTM D6890 procedure, and a larger constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC) was used to investigate the combustion characteristics of a suspended single oil droplet. In the CVCC chamber, the droplet was ignited in an atmosphere of air at 300 °C and pressure ranging from 4 bar - 22 bar at 6 bar interval pressures. IDT of lubricant oil was considered as the base IDT, which was compared to those of other mixtures. Addition of alcohols and water in lubricant oil showed a significant increase in IDT compared to toluene addition. On the contrary, the addition of toluene resulted in a decrease in IDT. Among the alcohols, methanol addition showed higher IDT than ethanol addition. Alcohols increased the IDT effectively only beyond the addition of > 4 % by vol.
Maharjan, Sumit, Elbaz, Ayman, Mitsudharmadi, Hatsari, Roberts, William
Oxidation of Soybean Biodiesel Fuel in Diesel Engine Oils04-12-03-001512/5/2019
Abstract During diesel engine operation, some fuel is entrained in engine oil, particularly as a consequence of strategies to regenerate NOx traps or particle filters. This “fuel dilution” of oil can adversely affect engine oil properties and performance. Compared to diesel fuel, biodiesel is more prone to fuel dilution and more susceptible to oxidation. Oxidation stability experiments were conducted at 160°C using a modified Rapid Small-Scale Oxidation Test (RSSOT) and a Rancimat instrument with 0, 5, 10, and 20 wt% biodiesel in four fully formulated engine oils, two partially formulated engine oils, and two base oils. These experiments showed decreasing oxidation stability with increasing biodiesel content. An exception was noted with the least stable oils (two base oils and one engine oil) in which 5 wt% biodiesel improved the oxidation stability relative to oil without biodiesel. Experiments with biodiesel distillation fractions identified this stability enhancement within the least volatile biodiesel fraction, consistent with natural antioxidants in the biodiesel. Omission of two engine oil additives, antioxidants and zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDP), led to an unexpected increase in oxidation stability (with and without biodiesel). Time-series oxidation experiments at 160°C with one of the fully formulated engine oils, with and without 20 wt% biodiesel, demonstrated that the biodiesel caused greater oxidation instability and extent of oxidation, greater formation of peroxides and reduction in total base number (TBN), increased ester content, and higher density. Kinematic viscosity increased with aging time and eventually surpassed that of the engine oil aged without biodiesel. With extended aging time, the fully formulated engine oil containing biodiesel “broke,” forming black tar-like materials with high viscosity.
Ball, James C., Anderson, James E., Duckworth, Jacob A., Uy, Dairene, Wallington, Timothy J.
Glossary of Terms Related to Fluid Filters and Filter TestingJ1124_201810 (Current)10/4/2018
Over the years during which fluid filtration systems have been developing, many terms have come into use for descriptions of characteristics of filter media, filter assemblies, test methods, and test materials. Inevitably, some terms have been applied loosely, so that the same term may have different meaning to different people, or in different frames of reference. Recognizing the need for clearly defined terms, which can have only one meaning for all persons in all circumstances, so that documents dealing with standard methods of evaluation of filters will have only one interpretation, the Filter Test methods Subcommittee of the SAE Engine Committee has compiled this Glossary of related terms. No attempt has been made to produce an all-inclusive document, containing definitions of all terms related to all types of fluid filters. Instead, the Glossary is confined to the terms likely to be encountered in relation to filters for lubricating oil and fuels. At the same time, we have recognized that some terms are common to all types of fluid filters, and have been careful to avoid conflict with the definitions published by other standardizing groups. If not identical, the definitions of these terms are at least worded to convey an identical meaning, hopefully in fewer, simpler or more precise words. We hope that this effort will be effective in helping to eliminate the ambiguities which have resulted from imprecise use of terminology and filtration. This Glossary is referenced in the SAE filter test methods documents. Terms used in those documents are intended to have the definitions shown by this Glossary, and no other. As new terms and their definitions become associated with the science of filtration and are relevant to the documents prepared by this subcommittee, revisions to the Glossary will be made, either by issuance of addenda or by revision and republication of the entire document.
Filter Test Methods Standards Committee
Aerospace - Evaluation of Particulate Contamination in Hydraulic Fluid - Membrane ProcedureARP4285A (Current)8/13/2018
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) establishes a method for evaluating the particulate matter extracted from the working fluid of a hydraulic system or component using a membrane. The amount of particulate matter deposited on the membrane due to filtering a given quantity of fluid is visually compared against a standard membrane in order to provide an indication of the cleanliness level of the fluid.
A-6C1 Contamination and Filtration Committee
Dynamic Particle Generation/Shedding in Lubricating Greases Used in Aerospace Applications01-11-02-00058/3/2018
The purpose of this study is to examine the phenomenon of Dynamic Particle Generation in lubricating greases that are used in a variety of critical Aerospace mechanisms. Particle Generation occurs in bearings, ball screws, and other mechanical devices where dynamic conditions are present. This should not be confused with outgassing as particle generation is unrelated to the pressure effects on a system. This is a critical factor in many systems as particle generation can contaminate systems or processes causing them to fail. These failures can lead to excessive costs, production failure, and equipment damage. In this study, several greases made from Multiplyalkylated Cyclopentane and Perfluoropolyether base fluids were tested to evaluate their particle generation properties. This particle generation phenomenon was studied using a custom test rig utilizing a high precision cleanroom ball-screw to simulate true application conditions. The ball-screw was tested at speeds from 200, 1,200, and 2,400 RPM to illustrate the effect of speed on the particle generation across different applications. This article will show the tendencies of different lubricant chemistries to generate particles and which ones present advantages of improved durability and environmental cleanliness for critical processes and applications.
Galary, Jason T.
Three-Body Abrasion Study of a Dynamic Seal by a Micro-Scale Abrasion Test under Lubricated Conditions2016-01-04964/5/2016
Debris are progressively generated just after wear occurred by the interaction of various mechanical elements inside the engines, steering gear boxes, transmissions, differentials, etc. Besides, debris could interfere with the normal operation of such components generating even more damage in other parts due to three-body abrasion. Hence, dynamic seals are susceptible to interact with very fine debris accumulated in the working lubes. Recently, owing to many test advantages, the micro-scale abrasion test has been extensively used to reproduce three-body abrasion in hard materials, coatings, polymers, etc., however, it has not been before employed for the wear assessment of elastomeric materials. This paper presents an adaptation of the micro-scale test method to study three-body abrasive behavior of an elastomeric dynamic seal (samples extracted from an automotive commercial Acrylonitrile-butadiene NBR rotary seal) under lubricated conditions. This work looks generate three-body abrasion on the NBR material, proposing a range of test conditions (Load, sliding speed, sliding distance and abrasive concentration) and quantify the volume loss. Engine lubricant contaminated with SiC micro-particles was used toward replicating the actual seal lip-rotary shaft interface condition. According to SEM images from the wear scars, the wear mechanisms were polishing (two-body abrasion), three-body abrasion, and a mixture of them. Nevertheless, three-body abrasion was just obtained under specific conditions. Finally, the particular wear pattern of three-body abrasion of elastomers was achieved. Even more, the method should be potentially used to test any elastomeric material in order to characterize the three-body abrasion resistance.
Farfan-Cabrera, Leonardo, Gallardo, Ezequiel A.
Tribological Performance of Lubricating Oil Contaminated with Fine Dust Particles2014-01-23349/30/2014
The economics of operating internal combustion engines in cars, buses and other automotive equipment is heavily affected by friction and wear losses caused by abrasive contaminants. As such, dust is a universal pollutant of lubricating oils. Road dust consists of depositions from vehicular and industrial exhausts, tire and brake wear, dust from paved roads or potholes, and from construction sites. Present research investigates the influence of dust powder of size 5 μm-100 μm as contaminant in SAE 20W-40 lubricant on the relative motion of a plane surface over the other having circular surface in contact. A pin-on-disk setup as per ASTM G99 has been used to conduct the experiments, firstly at increasing rpm keeping constant load of 118 N, and secondly by increasing loads, keeping rpm constant at 1000. The contaminated lubricant has been used to study its influence on friction and wear rate at the interface of pin of 12 mm diameter and disk at track diameter of 98 mm. Based on the experiments at constant load, the coefficient of friction decreased with increase in rpm and the wear rate first increased and then decreased. At constant rpm, the coefficient of friction as well as wear rate first increased then decreased as the load enhanced. Both friction and wear rate increased in the final stages of the experiment. Good performance of the lubricant can be attributed to the third body effect shown by fine dust particles.
Mohan, Nishant, Sharma, Mayank, Singh, Ramesh, Kumar, Naveen
Primary Breakup Model for Turbulent Liquid Jet Based on Ligament Evolution2012-01-04604/16/2012
The overall performance of direct injection (DI) engines is strictly correlated to the fuel liquid spray evolution into the cylinder volume. More in detail, spray behavior can drastically affect mixture formation, combustion efficiency, cycle to cycle engine variability, soot amount, and lubricant contamination. For this reason, in DI engine an accurate numerical reproduction of the spray behavior is mandatory. In order to improve the spray simulation accuracy, authors defined a new atomization model based on experimental evidences about ligament and droplet formations from a turbulent liquid jet surface. The proposed atomization approach was based on the assumption that the droplet stripping in a turbulent liquid jet is mainly linked to ligament formations. Reynolds-averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) simulation method was adopted for the continuum phase while the liquid discrete phase is managed by Lagrangian approach. To simulate the complete evolution of the injected droplets, the proposed atomization model was coupled to a secondary breakup model based on Kelvin-Helmholtz (KH) instability equations. The KH secondary breakup model was tuned in order to provide non-dimensional breakup time fitting experimental evidences all over the range of droplet Weber numbers. To test the new atomization model, a multi-hole high pressure gasoline direct injector was considered. In the present paper, simulation results are compared to experimental ones in terms of overall spray evolution along the injection period, local droplet diameter, and droplet velocity distribution.
Brusiani, Federico, Bianchi, Gian Marco, Tiberi, Alessandro
Hydraulic Systems, Military Aircraft, Design and Installation, Requirements ForAS5440A (Historical)1/3/2011
This specification covers the design and installation requirements for Types I and II military aircraft hydraulic systems.
A-6A2 Military Aircraft Committee
Actuators: Aircraft Flight Controls, Power Operated, Hydraulic, General Specification ForARP1281C (Current)9/12/2002
This aerospace recommended practice provides a framework and suggested procedures or values for requirements for the design, performance, and test of hydraulically powered servoactuators for use in aircraft flight control systems. The original version of this document was intended for military usage: consequently, the requirements still often reflect such use. However, the basic requirements of this ARP may and should be applicable to commercial usage as well, provided that appropriate considerations are given for the applicable FAR/JAR 25 regulations, hydraulic fluids, and environmental conditions.
A-6B1 Hydraulic Servo Actuation Committee
Hydraulic Fluids - A Design Element - Preconditions and Possibilities for Long-Life Lubrication2002-01-13843/19/2002
Apart from engine oils, hydraulic fluids are the second important group of lubricants. They make up about 15 % of the total lubricant consumption. Mineral oil-based hydraulic fluids account for about 85-90 % of all hydraulic fluids, fire-resistant fluids have a market share of about 5 %, rapidly biodegradable fluids and specialities of about 5 % [1, 2]. The increase in effective life of lubricants combined with smaller volumes, extended oil change intervals and lower lubricant consumption have the combined effect of increasing the stress on lubricants. Higher temperatures, smaller oil volumes and greater performance requirements all have the effect of increasing performance and quality demands made on hydraulic fluids. In this paper we would like to present results of thermal and oxidation stability tests of different hydraulic fluids, as well as results of friction coefficient measurements of different kinds of hydraulic fluids. We will show how we can influence evaporating losses by the careful selection of the base oil and we will describe the filtration behaviour of different additive packages under the influence of water in a dynamic filtration test rig. The hydraulic fluid as an important part of compatible fluid family systems in machine tools will be described.
Bock, Wolfgang
Observations of the Impact of Lubricant Additives on the Fatigue Life Performance of Tapered Roller Bearings9521249/1/1995
Lubricant formulations and lubricant additives have been slanted heavily toward protecting gear concentrated contacts from galling and wear. Much of the performance differentiation of these lubricants has been dependent on highly accelerated standardized laboratory testing. The area of contact fatigue has played a less important role in shaping lubricant formulations, but new test results for several commercially available gear lubricants suggest this area warrants a closer examintion. The implications of these findings for equipment applications are discussed, and suggestions are made for ways to minimize or avoid potential detrimental performance effects.
Nixon, Harvey P., Zantopulos, Harry
Quantifying and Reducing the Effect of Contamination on Rolling Bearing Fatigue Life9521239/1/1995
Contaminants in the lubricant of rolling bearings have a strong life-reducing effect. Various experimental processes of investigating into these influences on the life are discussed in detail. A method is presented by means of which the effect of cycled foreign particles on the fatigue life and the underlying physical correlations can be analysed largely free of unwanted interfering parameters. From the results of some thousands of test runs together with detailed analysis of a large number of actual applications an extension of the standardized life calculation for standard rolling bearings is derived taking into account the oil cleanliness according to ISO 4406. For applications where contamination of the lubricant cannot be eliminated, bearings made of the new material AMS 5898 offer an up to ten times longer fatigue life than conventional bearings.
Lösche, Thomas, Weigand, Michael
ACTUATORS: AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROLS, POWER OPERATED, HYDRAULIC, GENERAL SPECIFICATION FORARP1281B (Historical)5/1/1993
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) establishes the requirements for the design, performance, and tests for hydraulically powered servoactuators for use in aircraft flight control systems.
A-6B1 Hydraulic Servo Actuation Committee
ACTUATORS: AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROLS, POWER OPERATED, HYDRAULIC, GENERAL SPECIFICATION FORARP1281A (Historical)11/1/1991
This specification establishes general design, performance, and test requirements for hydraulically powered servoactuators when used in aircraft flight control systems.
A-6B1 Hydraulic Servo Actuation Committee
Long-Term, Heavy-Duty Field Test Comparison of Four GL-5 Gear Lubricants9008112/1/1990
Four GL-5 gear lubricants, one containing a dispersed solid borate additive, two sulfur-phosphorus (S-P), and a S-P synthetic, were evaluated in the axles and transmissions of 26 new Class 8 trucks in a 250,000-mile field test. Significantly lower axle break-in wear (factory to first oil change) was found for the borate lubricant versus a S-P factory-fill oil. The four test oils showed statistically significant differences in axle wear as shown by iron wear plots and analysis of end-of-test parts: the borate and synthetic oils were equal while the other two oils gave higher wear. All oils gave acceptable seal performance. The borate lubricant showed the best thermal stability as judged by parts cleanliness.
Salentine, C. G.
Comprehensive Method of Calculation for the Dimensioning of Rolling Bearings8919079/1/1989
The calculation of bearing lives using the standard formula represents a simplified method which indicates the life which is actually reached only some of the time. The a23 factor used to modify the calculated life has been primarily centered around lubrication. It can now be shown that although the lubricant is extremely important other factors such as the bearing type and its load can have a significant effect on the actual life and can be used to design more cost-effective bearing arrangements.
Scott, Robert B.
The Influence of Debris on Bearing Performance: Chapter II8919069/1/1989
In an earlier paper the primary factors that relate debris to bearing fatigue performance were discussed. It was recognized that it is the largest debris particles in a lubricant system that can influence fatigue life by the denting they produce. Some recent tests are described that provide an approximate relationship of particle size to dent size. An additional analysis of dent shape (primarily slope of the side wall) indicates that the severity of slope is a measure of the dent as a surface stress riser and thus its influence on bearing fatigue life. Comments concerning debris accessibility to a contact and a method to evaluate material differences in tolerating debris are also included.
Moyer, Charles A.
Performance of Lubricating Oils in Vegetable Oil Ester-Fuelled Diesel Engines8313559/12/1983
A series of engine dynamometer tests was carried out with 100% ethyl ester of soya oil as fuel and six different diesel engine lubricants. In each case the lubricant became contaminated by unburnt fuel during the tests with measured dilution rates of up to 0.2% of the fuel throughput. The lubricant/fuel mixture eventually underwent degradation to such an extent that phase separation occurred. The tests were terminated when the lubricant lost all dispersancy, as evaluated by a blotter-spot teat. Used oil analysis revealed that rapid oxidation of some of the fatty acid ester components of the fuel diluent had occurred in the later stages of the tests. At the high levels of fuel dilution recorded in these tests there was little difference between the performances of the six lubricants, despite their differing performance categories. It is therefore concluded that conventional performance categories cannot be used to define the grade of lubricant necessary for use with 100% vegetable oil ester fuels.
Blackburn, J. H., Pinchin, R., Nobre, J. I. T., Crichton, B. A. L., Cruse, H. W.
Interpretation of Engine Bearing Performance by Journal Orbit Analysis8300622/1/1983
Journal Orbit Analysis is a useful computer tool for bearing system design and troubleshooting. This paper is a handbook for interpretation of calculated journal orbit data and plots. The Interpretive techniques presented here apply to any of the Journal Orbit computer programs available. Journal Orbit summary data and plotted output are both discussed in detail. Limits are recommended for summary parameters, and charts are provided to show how typical bearings conform to those limits. Interpretive examples of typical computer plots are also included in the text.
Hollander, M., Bryda, K. A.
Weldbonding Aluminum in the Presence of Forming Lubricants8108166/1/1981
The effect on weldbond joint strength of varying adherends, adhesives and surface contamination was studied. High strength weldbonds were achieved with the different mill finish aluminum body sheet alloys and the adhesive types most commonly used today in vehicle manufacturing. Acceptable weldbond joint strengths also were achieved in the presence of forming lubricant concentrations that would not be expected to permit good adhesion.
Minford, J. Dean
Engine Performance as Influenced by Lubricant Deterioration6807602/1/1968
Tests employed for the evaluation of used lubricating oils generally involve the determination of changes in viscosity, insolubles buildup, contamination with metals, fuel, water, glycol and other physical and chemical changes. The author attempts to point out the relative significance of these various tests in terms of engine operation. Engine test data is also presented which shows the relationship between the oil condition measured by some of these tests and the engine performance characteristics. The data indicates that increase in alkalinity improves rust protection and reduces engine varnish and PCV valve restriction in certain additive combinations. Engine wear appears to be associated with the accumulation of contaminants in the lubricant measured as pentane insolubles and total acid number.
Asseff, Peter A.
Dry Lubricants and Corrosion6300971/1/1963
This paper discusses dry film lubricants from the standpoint of use by the military services, the Army in particular. For military purposes, a dry film lubricant is defined as a solid material which reduces friction and wear and at the same time provides corrosion protection. A summary of the types of dry lubricants and their desirable characteristics is given along with a discussion of the factors affecting the efficiency of the dry film lubricants. Recent work on the development of a dry film lubricant with a long wear life and corrosion protective properties is discussed. This work shows that graphite is not a desirable component in a dry film lubricant because it accelerates corrosion. The paper lists general applications for dry film lubricants and specific Ordnance applications, such as on the XM34 Littlejohn Rocket Launcher.
Meade, Francis S., Murphy, George P.
Simplified Lubrication — An Aid to the User's Economy6304181/1/1963
Lubrication “simplification” reduces the cost of lubricant inventory, lubricant ordering and handling, lubricant service, lubrication dispensing equipment, and reduces lubricant contamination and waste. The variety of equipment used in logging in a wide temperature range and variations in lubricant recommendations by manufacturers, make simplification difficult. Analysis by the user, with the assistance of lubricant supplier and manufacturer, can develop substitution or compromising possibilities which will sustain a simplification program. Diluting lubricating oils with kerosene is sometimes recommended. However, this requires greater control measures than generally considered as normal since viscosity can be impaired.
Ard, Henry N.
A Study of Low Temperature Sludge Techniques6102761/1/1961
Quillian, R. D., Moffitt, J. V.
TAKING THE CONFUSION OUT OF WHEEL BEARING LUBRICATION5501071/1/1955
A much higher degree of skill is required in lubricating automotive wheel bearings. This skill requirement coupled with many varying recommendations for wheel bearing lubrication has resulted in a situation where the majority of wheel bearing and wheel bearing grease complaints are caused by mishandling of product and by improper servicing. In recognition of this problem, the Technical Committee of the National Lubricating Grease Institute established a Subcommittee which developed “Recommended Practices for Lubricating Automotive Front Wheel Bearings”. These procedures incorporated suggestions made by oil companies and automobile, truck, and bearing manufacturers. Universal adoption and application of these recommended practices and more uniform recommendations by the automotive and petroleum industries will “take the confusion out of wheel bearing lubrication”.
TOFFOLI, P. V.
The Air Force Looks at SYNTHETIC LUBRICANTS5001801/1/1950
SYNTHETIC lubricants-materials that are wholly or largely nonpetroleum - are being looked at with favor by the Air Force, the authors indicate, because of limitations in the performance of petroleum lubricants at extremely high and extremely low temperatures. The types of materials investigated as synthetic lubricants included: dibasic acid ester, polyalkylene glycols, organic silicon compounds, halogenated hydrocarbon, and inorganic radical-organic base ester.
RUBIN, BERNARD, GLASS, EDWARD M.
Fleet Tests of Synthetic Lubricants4801931/1/1948
RESULTS of extensive field tests of synthetic motor oil are reported here. The author suggests that the following advantages are possible with the use of synthetic oils as compared with detergent oils: 1. Ability to cover a greater range of temperatures with a single grade of oil. 2. Somewhat reduced carbon formation, particularly on valve stems; such carbon as is formed is of softer texture; some reduction in frequency of valve and carbon jobs; slightly freer rings. 3. It appears that oil change mileages can at least be doubled in any given class of service, with no increase in the rate of oil consumption and with improved engine cleanliness.
WILSON, D.K.
BEVEL GEAR TEST EXPERIENCE4700121/1/1947
COWELL, WARNER T.
Recent Developments In Universal Gear Lubricants - Progress Report on the Gear Oils Projects General Division CRC Coordinating Lubricants Research Committee4600861/1/1946
KEYSER, P. V.
NEW Synthetic LUBRICANTS4602151/1/1946
DESCRIBED here are the detailed characteristics of two series of synthetic lubricants, one essentially insoluble and the other soluble in water at room temperature. These lubricants are synthesized from natural or other hydrocarbon gases as raw materials. Results of laboratory and field tests indicate that the lubricants can be successfully used in internal-combustion engines. In fact, the authors report that one of them has already been used extensively in aircraft engines by the Army Air Forces and the Air Transport Command.
KRATZER, J. C., GREEN, D. H., WILLIAMS, D. B.
FUELS and LUBRICANTS procured by The Quartermaster-General for U. S. Army Motorized Ground Forces4201031/1/1942
PRACTICALLY every selection of fuels and lubricants for the Army Motorized Ground Forces must be a compromise among three considerations - the requirements of the units, the availability of the desired products, and the problems of supply, Mr. Round points out. Stressing the need for simplification of the supply problem, he brings out that, whereas in civilian operations, a mistake may be merely an inconvenience; in battle it may cause a major disaster. He shows that such simplification is not a simple problem by reporting that practically every type of engine is used in the Ground Forces - gasoline, diesel; air and water cooled; inline, vee, and radial designs, ranging in size from tiny lighting units to the engines used in the largest tanks. The Army problem, he summarizes, is to reduce the wide variety of fuels and lubricants recommended for these engines and vehicles in civilian service to the absolute minimum consistent with satisfactory results. The major part of his paper outlines the real progress that has been made toward this objective. The seven Appendixes of the paper give the pertinent condensed U. S. Army specifications.
ROUND, GEORGE A.
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