Browse Topic: Sustainable development

Items (196)

A Power Split eCVT Hybrid for Sustainable Urban Mobility

2024-32-002904/18/2025

The main drivers for powertrain electrification of two-wheelers, motorcycles and ATVs are increasingly stringent emission and noise limitations as well as the upcoming demand for carbon neutrality. Two-wheeler applications face significantly different constraints, such as packaging and mass targets, limited charging infrastructure in urban areas and demanding cost targets. Battery electric two wheelers are the optimal choice for transient city driving with limited range requirements. Hybridization provides considerable advantages and extended operation limits. Beside efficiency improvement, silent and zero emission modes with solutions allowing fully electric driving, combined boosting enhances performance and transient response. In general, there are two different two-wheeler base categories for hybrid powertrains: motorcycles featuring frame-integrated internal combustion engine (ICE) and transmission units, coupled with secondary drives via chain or belt; and scooters equipped with

Schoeffmann, W., Fuckar, G., Hubmann, C., Gruber, M.

Basic Investigation of Thermodynamic Effects on a Hydrogen Two-Stroke Engine

2024-32-003904/18/2025

The spark ignited two-stroke engine, as a cost-efficient power unit with low maintenance demand, is used millionfold for the propulsion of hand-held application, motorcycles, scooters, boats and others. The outstanding power to weight ratio is the key advantage for two-stroke engines. However, poor exhaust emissions, caused by high scavenge losses, especially on port controlled two-stroke engines, and a low efficiency are disadvantages of this combustion process. Under the aspect of increasing environment- and health awareness, the two-stroke technology driven with fossil resources, shows no future advantage. The anthropogenic climate change force for sustainable development of combustion engines whereby reduction of fuel consumption or usage of alternative fuels is an important factor. Best way of a decarbonization to fulfil future climate goals is the utilization of non-carbon fuels. In this field of fuels, hydrogen, with its high energy content and close inexhaustible availability

Yasuda, Terutaka, Oswald, Roland, Kirchberger, Roland

SAE TOMORROW TODAY BRIEFS: The Supplier's Role in Achieving Sustainability

1346607/10/2024

When people think of sustainability in the automotive world, they typically focus on the automaker. But the reality is that sustainability goals cannot be met without suppliers. GKN Automotive is a Tier 1 supplier of driveline components, all-wheel drive systems, and plug-in hybrid solutions. Listen in as Roberto Baldwin, Sustainability Editor, SAE Sustainable Mobility Solutions, sits down with Tom Salisbury, Director of Sustainability, GKN Automotive, to discuss the company's sustainability goals, working toward a net zero supply chain, and responsible sourcing practices. For more information on the evolution of sustainability, head on over to sustainablecareers.sae.org. There you can learn about the adoption of SAE standard J3400 (also known as NACS or the Tesla port) and what it means for the future of charging EVs.

Hineman, Marcie

Electrifying the Giants: Green mobility solution for M&HCVs in India.

2024-26-013101/16/2024

Diesel operated Medium and Heavy Commercial Vehicles (M&HCV) account for nearly 70% of all road transportation in India which is expected to quadruple, from 4 million in 2022 to roughly 17 million trucks by 2050. Despite comprising a mere 5% of total vehicle fleet, they consume nearly 57% of fossil fuel used by the transport sector and responsible for 71% ,74% and 55% of CO2 ,PM and NOx emissions respectively. This necessities the transition of M&HCV into green mobility solution. Furthermore, smaller vehicles like 2W, 3W, 4 wheeler like cars and buses are adopting EV technology at a faster pace coupled with incentivization through government policies like FAME-I, FAME-II etc., advocates an immediate intervention on electrification of M&HCVs to multifold the impact. This paper suggests a collaborative approach amongst M&HCV manufactures and government agencies to realize the transition while integrating the benefits of reduced emissions, lower operating costs, quieter operation

Saurabh, Piyush, Giri, Debabrata

SAE TOMORROW TODAY: Avant-Garde EV Company to Build in the US

1340106/22/2023

While you may not have heard of Polestar, its exceptional performance, unique buying experience, and commitment to sustainability enables this novel brand to "intercept" its customers. Headquartered in Sweden and built with Scandinavian minimalism in mind, Polestar offers a friction-free, primarily digital EV buying experience which includes boutique showrooms in areas with high foot traffic--a contrast to the traditional car lot. The company recently unveiled its first electric performance SUV, the Polestar 3, which is produced in United States. With a focus on supply chain traceability and sustainability labelling, Polestar assesses their vehicles' lifetime carbon footprint, covering emissions from materials production, manufacturing, and logistics, use phase, and end of life. As part of their commitment to an electrified future, Polestar also recently partnered with the SAE Foundation to spark STEM curiosity amongst students. To learn more about this burgeoning brand, we sat down

Hineman, Marcie

SAE TOMORROW TODAY: Sustainable Rubber Hits the Road

1337902/03/2023

When the rubber hits the road, one tire company stands out among the rest. From raw material traceability to supply chain transparency, Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company is not only helping to do what's good for business, but what's good for the planet, too. Driven by an ambitious sustainability strategy, Goodyear has set goals to develop a tire made of 100% sustainable materials by 2030 and using only renewable energy in its manufacturing facilities and operations by 2040. The company is even working to develop a domestic source of natural rubber from a specific species of dandelion in collaboration with the Department of Defense, the Air Force Research Lab, BioMADE and Farmed Materials. To learn more about Goodyear's impressive sustainability journey, we sat down with Ellis Jones, Vice President and Chief Sustainability Officer. He discusses the company's uniquely strong culture, the importance of working collaboratively with small farms, and the development of new sustainable tire

Hineman, Marcie

5 Ws of Floating Sensors

TBMG-4562104/07/2022

SAE TOMORROW TODAY: SAE: Forging a New Mobility Ecosystem - Part 1

1317111/12/2021

Think you know SAE? These episodes will have you thinking again. The next mobility revolution is upon us. Connected, automated and electrified transportation can provide equity of access to jobs, education, health care and beyond - but the future comes with challenges as innovators consider sustainability, resiliency and scalability of production. In part one of this special two-part series, SAE International's own Chief Growth Officer, Frank Menchaca, discusses the ways SAE is meeting the changing needs of 21st-century transportation and mobility, the organization's partnership with Argo AI and Clemson University to build the new Robotics Bootcamp, why SAE's J3016 Levels of Driving Automation was created, and the launch of SAE's Office of Sustainable Energy. Intrigued? Meet Pete. Meet Skylar. And meet Violet.

Hineman, Marcie

MOLD IN COLOR PIANNO BLACK PC MATERIAL FOR AUTOMOTIVE EXTERIOR APPLICATION

2021-26-024209/22/2021

Aesthetics contribute significantly to the customer buying decision of an automobile. This is traditionally achieved through painting. Sustainability and cost challenges have led automakers to look at substituting painting through molded-in color polymers in decorative bezels like pillar appliques. These appliques and bezels have a unique mix of material requirements that include color tone, gloss, stiffness, scratch resistance and weathering. Polycarbonates are an interesting class of polymers that has potential to meet these challenging requirements. This paper reports the work done in evaluating a polycarbonate compound in piano black shade to meet the functional and aesthetic requirements. The results prove that the material can substitute painting thereby resulting in significant cost savings.

Govindaraj, Karthik, Vimalathithan, Murukesan, Balaji, K V, Samir, Gandhi, hebbar, vinayak

Evaluation of Sustainable Alternative Fuels from Waste Coffee Grounds

2021-01-120609/21/2021

The economy is gradually transitioning to a circular model that extends resources, reduces waste and requires a great deal of creative thinking. Both established and emerging global economies view waste as a main bioresource for our next generation energy. Nowadays a growing recognition evolves that the twin problems of waste management and resource depletion can be solved together through the utilization of food waste as a resource, using green and sustainable technologies that can play a significant part in the forthcoming bio-economy era. Coffee is one of the most popular beverages with the consumption continuously increasing and generating huge amounts of solid residues in return. This solid waste after the extraction of the coffee beverage is known as Waste or Spent Coffee Grounds (WCG). Among others the valorization has the potential to be directed as a bioresource for sustainable energy and particularly for the production of alternative liquid fuels for ICE. The aim of the

Dodos, George S., Deligiannis, Alexandros, Karonis, Dimitrios, Zannikos, Fanourios

Sustainable 3D-Printed Magnets

TBMG-3980909/01/2021

From wind turbines and electric motors to sensors, permanent magnets are used in many electrical applications. The production of these magnets usually involves sintering or injection molding. But due to the increasing miniaturization of electronics and more exacting requirements placed on magnetic components in terms of geometry, conventional manufacturing methods are frequently coming up short. Additive manufacturing technologies, however, offer the required flexibility of shape, enabling production of magnets tailored to the demands of the application in question.

Pre-Treatment Solution for Water Recovery

TBMG-3959508/01/2021

The Pre-Treatment Solution for Water Recovery was developed by NASA Johnson to increase the amount of potable water recovered from the International Space Station’s urine processor assembly system. Turning wastewater, urine, or seawater into potable water requires three important steps: 1) pre-treatment, 2) distillation or membrane filtration, and 3) transport and storage of potable water and brine. This solution is added during the first step, consequently improving the next steps in the process primarily by reducing the formation of solid precipitates.

System Identifies Battery Materials for Recycling

TBMG-3957608/01/2021

The emergence and dominance of Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in markets such as consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage are driving enormous interest in the battery sector. The growing demand is generating a huge number of spent Li-ion batteries, thereby urging the development of cost-effective and environmentally sustainable recycling technologies to manage end-of-life batteries.

Using Wood Byproducts to Produce Sustainable Bioplastics

TBMG-3962308/01/2021

Efforts to shift from petrochemical plastics to renewable and biodegradable plastics have proven tricky — the production process can require toxic chemicals and is expensive, and the mechanical strength and water stability is often insufficient. Now, researchers have used wood byproducts to produce more durable and sustainable bioplastics.

Organic Material for Next-Generation HVAC Technologies

TBMG-3962408/01/2021

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems often come with dehumidifiers but are currently not energy efficient, guzzling around 76% of the electricity in commercial and residential buildings. Researchers have determined that organic material called polyimides use less energy to dry air. Poly-imide-based dehumidifiers can bring down the price of HVAC systems, which currently cost thousands of dollars.

Graphene “Nano-Origami” Creates Tiny Microchips

TBMG-3960408/01/2021

Tiny microchips can be made from graphene and other two-dimensional (2D) materials using a form of “nano-origami.” By creating kinks in the structure of graphene, researchers made the nanomaterial behave like a transistor and showed that when a strip of graphene is crinkled in this way, it can behave like a microchip that is around 100 times smaller than conventional microchips.

SAE TOMORROW TODAY: Los Angeles World Airports Innovating the Passenger Experience

1315307/08/2021

The airline industry is gradually emerging from a devastating hit as the world rebounds from the shut downs caused by COVID-19. On the path back to "normal," digitization, innovation and sustainability are transforming the travel experience. Justin Erbacci, CEO, Los Angeles World Airports, is doing his part to revolutionize the airport experience through biometrics, food and beverage delivery to the gate, and FlyAway bus service at @LAXAirport - and that's just the beginning! Tune in to hear how Erbacci and his team are propelling LAX into the future and setting the tone in the industry.

Hineman, Marcie

SAE TOMORROW TODAY: Bear Flag Robotics, Helping Farmers Improve Sustainability

1300804/06/2021

Sustainable farming is within reach and Bear Flag Robotics is part of the collage of technology that's making it happen. On the latest episode, we spoke with Igino Cafiero and Aubrey Donnellan, Founders of Bear Flag Robotics, to discuss how the unique business model enables business and farming success. From their days at Carnegie Mellon to the present, the unique perspectives of Cafiero and Donnellan have helped build the Bear Flag Robotics business on diversity of thought, transparency and trust. Discover how they bring these same ideals to business relationships with farmers and how Bear Flag's technology plays a role in safety, productivity and sustainability.

Hineman, Marcie

3D Printing with Wood-Based Ink

TBMG-3847402/01/2021

The way in which wood grows is controlled by its genetic code, which gives it unique properties in terms of porosity, toughness, and torsional strength. But wood has limitations when it comes to processing. Unlike metals and plastics, it cannot be melted and easily reshaped, and instead must be sawed, planed, or curved. Processes that involve conversion — to make products such as paper, cards, and textiles — destroy the underlying ultrastructure, or architecture, of the wood cells.

Side-Mounted Solar Modules Enhance Energy Sustainability

TBMG-3832901/01/2021

If builders could incorporate solar harvesting into the siding of a building, the amount of energy from the grid that a structure would need may significantly decrease. Researchers have demonstrated the potential of wedge-shaped luminescent solar concentrators (LSCs) that can easily be hung on the side of a building.

Special Section: The Winners of the 2020 'Create the Future' Design Contest

TBMG-3828312/01/2020

The , launched in 2002 by Tech Briefs Media Group (publishers of Tech Briefs magazine), recognizes and rewards engineering innovations that benefit humanity, the environment, and the economy. The annual contest draws product designs from engineers, students, and entrepreneurs worldwide.

Creating the Future: Implantable ICD Eliminates Wires & Offers Painless Defibrillation

TBMG-3816412/01/2020

Design of New Piezoelectric Composites Using Nanocellulose

TBMG-3824712/01/2020

This research project focused on cellulose crystals as building blocks for the design and development of new low-density functional polymer composites. Although the piezoelectricity of cellulose has been predicted from its non-centrosymmetric crystal structure, it has not been measured accurately, nor has cellulose been properly exploited as a piezoelectric material. If it is proven, it could enable novel low-density electroactive materials capable of surpassing the performance of the best synthetic piezoelectric polymer such as polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF).

Sunlight Converts Emissions into Useful Materials

TBMG-3800511/01/2020

The rapidly growing concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the Earth’s atmosphere is one of the most urgent issues humanity must address to avoid a climate catastrophe. Thanks to greenhouse gases like CO2, the heat from the Sun is remaining trapped in the atmosphere, warming the planet. Researchers developed a method to break CO2 apart and convert the greenhouse gas into useful materials like fuels or consumer products ranging from pharmaceuticals to polymers.

Electricity-Free Radiative Cooling System

TBMG-3798111/01/2020

Engineers have designed a system that can help cool buildings in crowded metropolitan areas without consuming electricity — an important innovation at a time when cities are working to adapt to climate change.

Faster-Degrading Plastic for Marine Uses

TBMG-3797611/01/2020

To address the plastic environmental crisis, chemists have developed a new polymer with ample strength in a marine setting that degrades by ultraviolet radiation. The plastic has the mechanical properties required by commercial fishing gear. If it eventually gets lost in the aquatic environment, the material can degrade on a realistic time scale.

5 Ws of Algae-Based Flip-Flops

TBMG-3781010/01/2020

Flip-flops are one of the most popular sandals, with an estimated market size of $20 billion.

Ford envisions broad portfolio of renewable materials - including coffee

20AUTP10_1010/01/2020

A broad portfolio of renewable materials is available now that can help the automotive industry reduce its carbon footprint. Many of these new materials exceed the performance of traditional plastic composites, and more are constantly coming online. This was the message from Dr. Deborah Mielewski, senior technical leader of sustainable and advanced materials at Ford, during her recent “Greener materials for a greener world” virtual keynote at the 2020 SPE Automotive Composites Conference. According to Mielewski, Ford already has more than 10 renewable materials in production, including natural fiber reinforced composites such as wheat straw, rice hulls and tree-based cellulose fiber that exceed traditional-material performance. “Over the past five years, we have kicked off several new material investigations with cellulose nanofibers and materials from carbon dioxide,” Mielewski said, “and we are applying our knowledge in green materials to the exploding area of 3D printing.”

Seredynski, Paul

Bacteria-Based Hydrogel Beads Clean Up Contaminated Groundwater

TBMG-3745108/01/2020

Hydrogel beads with the consistency of gummy candy are made with an ingredient used in processed foods to clean up groundwater contaminated with dangerous and widely used volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Among the contaminants addressed by the method are 1,1,1-trichloroethane, cis-1,2-dichloroethene, and 1,4-dioxane — degreasers commonly used by industry and the military. The chemicals can infiltrate groundwater through leaky underground storage tanks or runoff, or by simply being dumped on the ground.

Reverse Fuel Cell Converts Waste Carbon to Valuable Chemicals

TBMG-3745808/01/2020

Fuel cells turn chemicals into electricity. Now, engineers have adapted technology from fuel cells to do the reverse: harness electricity to make valuable chemicals from waste carbon (CO2).

Smart Sponge for Environmental Remediation

TBMG-3744108/01/2020

Oil spill cleanup is an expensive and complicated process that often harms marine life and further damages the environment. Currently used solutions include burning the oil, using chemical dispersants to breakdown oil into very small droplets, skimming oil floating on top of water, and/or absorbing it with expensive, unrecyclable sorbents. Burning increases carbon emissions and dispersants are harmful for marine wildlife. Skimmers don’t work in rough waters or with thin layers of oil. Sorbents are not only expensive but generate a huge amount of physical waste.

Nature-Inspired Green Energy Technology

TBMG-3722507/01/2020

Researchers around the world seek to use photosynthesis — the sunlight-driven chemical reaction that green plants and algae use to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into cellular fuel— to generate the kinds of fuel that can power homes and vehicles. If the necessary technology could be refined past theoretical models and lab-scale prototypes, this idea, known as artificial photosynthesis, has the potential to generate large sources of completely renewable energy using the surplus CO2 in the atmosphere.

Essential Oils Inhibit Mold on Wood

TBMG-3703506/01/2020

Moisture management remains the most important critical factor for controlling mold growth on wood and wood products during storage, construction, and in service. Potential health risks caused by mold growth in houses and non-residential wooden structures have been a major concern for homeowners, building contractors, and insurance companies.

Carbonated Cement for Production of Concrete with Improved Properties

TBMG-3704406/01/2020

NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center has developed a new cement composition and manufacturing method that enables carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions reduction in cement manufacturing while also providing a cement with improved performance capabilities. Building off of expertise in life-support oxygen-control systems for spacecraft, researchers have demonstrated a process whereby carbon is reduced to solid form from captured CO2 emissions and becomes an inherent component of the cement product. The technical viability of the innovation was demonstrated with laboratory testing indicating that, in addition to reduced CO2 emissions, cement compositions with enhanced properties can be attained.

'Artificial Leaf' Produces Clean Gas

TBMG-3703306/01/2020

Syngas is currently made from a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide and is used to produce a range of commodities such as fuels, pharmaceuticals, plastics, and fertilizers. Producing it sustainably could be a critical step in closing the global carbon cycle and establishing a sustainable chemical and fuel industry.

Recovery of Mercury and Rare Earth Elements from Fluorescent Lamp Phosphors

TBMG-3580301/01/2020

All fluorescent lights contain small amounts of mercury and rare earth metals. There is a need to safely remove and recycle mercury and rare earth elements from used fluorescent lamps in order to keep the valuable and potentially poisonous metals out of the environment and aid the domestic recovery of critical materials.

Catalysis Approach Reduces Carbon Dioxide to Methane

TBMG-3580001/01/2020

A new approach was developed that utilizes a series of catalytic reactions to electrochemically reduce carbon dioxide to methane — the main ingredient in natural gas — eliminating an intermediate step usually needed in the reduction process.

Power System for Hybrid Heavy-Duty Trucks

TBMG-3580401/01/2020

Heavy-duty trucks such as 18-wheelers are virtually all powered by diesel engines. They account for a significant portion of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions but little has been done to curb their climate-change-inducing exhaust.

Viable, Environmentally Friendly Alternative to Polystyrene Foam

TBMG-3581701/01/2020

An environmentally friendly foam was developed that can be used as an alternative to polystyrene foam, or Styrofoam™. The foam is made mostly from nanocrystals of cellulose, the most abundant plant material on Earth. The researchers also developed an environmentally friendly and simple manufacturing process to make the foam using water as a solvent instead of other harmful solvents.

The Planetary Tides Simulation Facility for Simulation Tidal Strain in Planetary Ice Analogs

TBMG-3578601/01/2020

An apparatus was developed with the capability to measure the anelastic and viscoelastic properties of icy materials over the long tidal periods and stress levels characteristic of Earth and icy satellites.

Chromium Removal from PVC Filters

TBMG-3578701/01/2020

Chromium metals and hexavalent chromium are known health hazards monitored in workplace environments. Occupational health professionals use polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in disc filters to monitor total chromium present in a workplace. If chromium background is present in the filters, the interpretation of the results can be problematic. Current analytical analysis methods can't discern environmentally harvested chromium materials from chromium that is present as a result of manufacturing byproducts in the filters. A need exists for a non-destructive method of removing the background concentration of chromium metals and hexavalent chromium that is present in the PVC filters.

Process Turns Sand and Plant Materials into a Water Filtration Tool

TBMG-3581901/01/2020

According to the United Nations, 2.1 billion people lack access to safely managed drinking water services and the majority live in developing nations. A process was developed that uses sand and plant materials readily available in many developing nations to create a cheap and effective water filtration medium called “f-sand.” F-sand uses proteins from the Moringa oleifera plant, a tree native to India that grows well in tropical and subtropical climates. The tree is cultivated for food and natural oils, and the seeds are already used for a type of rudimentary water purification; however, this traditional means of purification leaves behind high amounts of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from the seeds, allowing bacteria to regrow after just 24 hours. This leaves only a short window in which the water is drinkable.

Carbon Capture Process Makes Sustainable Oil

TBMG-3570312/01/2019

Spinoff is NASA's annual publication featuring successfully commercialized NASA technology. This commercialization has contributed to the development of products and services in the fields of health and medicine, consumer goods, transportation, public safety, computer technology, and environmental resources.

Ultra-Thin Layers of Rust Generate Electricity from Flowing Water

TBMG-3572212/01/2019

Research shows that thin films of rust (iron oxide) can generate electricity when saltwater flows over them. These films represent an entirely new way of generating electricity and could be used to develop new forms of sustainable power production.

Reducing winter range loss for electric trucks

19TOFHP12_0212/01/2019

Researchers at the Austrian Institute of Technology have developed an air exchange system that's capable of reducing heat load by 37% in real-world tests. Battery-electric vehicle (BEV) range loss from winter use of PTC (positive temperature coefficient) heating has become a source of major concern as the industry works to make EVs a mainstream choice. Addressing this particular problem area with an economically viable solution was deemed a worthwhile effort by the Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT), which is jointly owned by the Austrian government and the Federation of Austrian Industries. A fleet test of electric delivery trucks is underway on European roads. The AIT project, results of which were presented at the recent SAE Thermal Management Systems Symposium (TMSS), began by noting a 20% loss in range at −15°C (+5°F) from the heating system. AIT set a target of recovering 25% of that loss, primarily with the use of a ventilation module. Available reference data (at −10°C/+14

Weissler, Paul

2019 'Create the Future' Sustainable Technologies Category Winner: Wave-Powered Water Desalination

TBMG-3544911/01/2019

5 Ws of PDK Recyclable Plastic

TBMG-3473407/01/2019

Anyone who uses products made of plastic. The new recyclable plastic could be a good alternative to many nonrecyclable plastics in use today.

3D Printable Sensors Disposed of Without Contaminating the Environment

TBMG-3459206/01/2019

Simon Fraser University and Swiss researchers are developing an eco-friendly, 3D printable solution for producing wireless Internet-of-Things (IoT) sensors that can be used and disposed of without contaminating the environment.

Regional Hydrologic Extremes Assessment System (RHEAS) Software

TBMG-3414504/01/2019

Drought is Africa’s principal type of natural disaster and is at the core of serious threats to the livelihoods of millions of people and the natural resources on which they depend. The economies of many African countries are based on agricultural activities that are controlled mainly by rainfall amounts and distribution; thus, food security in the region is highly vulnerable to impacts of drought.

Material Captures and Removes Toxic Atmospheric Gas

TBMG-3414204/01/2019

A metal-organic framework (MOF) material was developed that exhibits a selective, fully reversible, and repeatable capability to remove nitrogen dioxide gas from the atmosphere in ambient conditions. The material denoted as MFM-300 (Al) exhibited the first reversible, selective capture of nitrogen dioxide at ambient pressures and temperatures — at low concentrations — in the presence of moisture, sulfur dioxide, and carbon dioxide. Despite the highly reactive nature of nitrogen dioxide, the MFM-300(Al) material proved extremely robust, demonstrating the capability to be fully regenerated, or degassed, multiple times without loss of crystallinity or porosity. Other different porous materials often showed degraded performance in subsequent cycles by the nitrogen dioxide, or that the regeneration process was too difficult and costly.

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