Browse Topic: Flight guidance systems

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Automatic Pilots (Turbine Powered Subsonic Aircraft)AS440B (Current)12/22/2020
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) covers automatic pilots intended for use on aircraft to automatically operate the primary and trim aerodynamic controls to maintain stable flight and/or to provide maneuvering about any of the three axes through servo control. Automatic control functions essential for primary or augmented flight control are excluded.
A-4 Aircraft Instruments Committee
Human Engineering Recommendations for Data Link SystemsARP4791B (Current)11/3/2020
This document sets forth general, functional, procedural, and design criteria and recommendations concerning human engineering of data link systems. The recommendations are based on limited evidence from empirical and analytic studies of simulated data link communication, and on experience from operational tests and actual use of data link. However, because data are not yet available to support recommendations on all potentially critical human engineering issues these recommendations necessarily go beyond the data link research and include requirements based on related research and human factors engineering practice. It is also recognized that evolution of these recommendations will be appropriate as experience with data link accumulates and new applications are implemented. This document focuses primarily on recommendations for data link communications between an air traffic specialist and a pilot, i.e., air traffic services communications, although some recommendations address use of data link for flight information services. Unless otherwise specified within the text, all recommendations apply to both flight deck and ground-based data link systems. This document is intended as a guide for development and evaluation of data link systems. Human engineering considerations are an important element of data link system performance. As illustrated in Figure 1, human engineering recommendations address many component functions required for effective data link communication services in the operational environment. For presentation purposes, the recommendations are divided into five sections: General, functional, procedures, flight deck/air traffic service (ATS) workstation integration, and human-computer interface. To facilitate understanding and use of this document appropriate cross-references to interrelated recommendations appear in parentheses throughout the text.
G-10 Executive Advisory Group
Visual Augmentation for Personal Air Vehicles During Flight Control System DegradationF-0076-2020-1628310/5/2020
Successful human intervention will be central to any emerging autonomous aerial transport platform, such as personal aerial vehicles (PAV), for the safe conduct of flight. This paper proposes a concept to compensate a partial failure of the autonomous flight guidance by handing over control of the aircraft to a passenger and analyzes the associated human factors. First, a novel waypoint guidance law is designed that generates the desired roll commands for navigation to a designated safe landing spot. Second, two novel guidance display concepts are developed, one for the primary flight display (PFD), and another for the helmet mounted display (HMD), which indicate the desired roll commanded by the guidance law. Third, the guidance law and display concepts are integrated into a high-fidelity, wide field-of-view flight simulation environment and a static mock-up of a conventional helicopter cockpit. Humanin-the-loop experiments were performed with test subjects to analyze the effectiveness of the guidance law and display concepts, and to evaluate piloting performance by non-professional pilots. Various mission task elements were analyzed in these experiments and, in order to intensify workload, a disturbance was included together with a guidance law for commanded roll of PAV. Navigation performance, test subjects' ratings and workload are measured by a combination of objective and subjective analyses. Results indicate that all test subjects were able to reach a close vicinity of the landing spot. Furthermore, the HMD concept shows a lower workload with equal or better navigation performance when compared to the PFD concept.
Mehling, Tim, Vrdoljak, Milan, Halbe, Omkar, Heller, Matthias, Hajek, Manfred
A Systems Engineering Approach for Enabling Research and Development in the Vertical Lift Autonomy Flight Sciences DomainF-0076-2020-1636110/5/2020
The objective of the joint National Research Council of Canada (NRC) and The Boeing Company Technology Development Program (TDP) entitled 'Canadian Vertical Lift Autonomy Demonstration' (CVLAD) is to evaluate automated and supervised autonomous flight systems on NRC Bell 412 Advanced Systems Research Aircraft (ASRA) and Royal Canadian Air Force Boeing CH-147F Chinook demonstrators. Boeing technologies such as Degraded Visual Environment Pilotage System and Advanced Vehicle Management System form the foundation of an autonomy solution that aims to satisfy Royal Canadian Air Force, US Army, and other Armed Service branch end-use objectives for force multiplication, tactical advantage, pilot assistance, reduced crew operations, and enhanced fleet productivity. The Boeing Company engaged NRC under a Cooperative Research Agreement since 2016 as part of a number of strategies to upgrade Medium-Heavy Lift H-47 Chinook capabilities prior to long-term aircraft replacement in the 2030 to 2060 timeframe. A recent achievement of the CVLAD TDP by its Boeing Phantom Works, Boeing Chinook Program, Aurora Flight Sciences, and NRC Flight Research Laboratory team was the development of Automated Flight Guidance methods addressing system safety and performance. Design and evaluation activities occurred in Boeing Software-/Hardware in-loop facilities as well as on the NRC Bell 412 ASRA. The CVLAD team is using a blend of traditional Systems Engineering 'V-Shaped' Life Cycle Model, System of Systems, and Model-Based processes to develop a cyber-physical system that aims to meet end-user concept of operations and requirements. Significant benefits of virtual development tools such as component-vehicle digital twins and surrogate inflight simulation facilities are achieved as they promote effective collaboration, efficient design, and relevant verification/validation methodologies. Business models can be made more robust by phasing the introduction of technology where effective automation provides users with near-term benefits, while providing a foundation for safe, reliable, and trusted autonomous capabilities for long-term production.
Alexander, Marc, Spano, Mark, Gowanlock, Derek, Gubbels, Arthur, Dones, Fernando, Rossi, Glenn
Aerospace - Passive Side Stick Unit General Requirements for Fly-by Wire Transport and BusinessARP6001B (Current)4/23/2020
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) provides recommendations for design and test requirements for a generic “passive” side stick that could be used for fly-by wire transport and business aircraft. It addresses the following: The functions to be implemented The geometric and mechanical characteristics The mechanical and electrical interfaces The safety and certification requirements
A-6A3 Flight Control and Vehicle Management Systems Cmt
Flight Deck Lighting for Commercial Transport AircraftARP4103A (Current)9/17/2019
This document recommends design and performance criteria for aircraft lighting systems used to illuminate flight deck controls, luminous visual displays used for transfer of information, and flight deck background and instrument surfaces that form the flight deck visual environment. This document is for commercial transport aircraft except for applications requiring night vision compatibility.
A-20A Crew Station Lighting Committee
Flight Testing of Coupled Flight Controls toward Reducing Pilot Workload during Landing in DVEF-0075-2019-145905/13/2019
Landing helicopters in Degraded Visual Environments (DVE) is one of the most challenging maneuvers pilots perform. The U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command, Aviation & Missile Center, Aviation Development Directorate has been working to develop flight guidance and sensor systems to provide the pilot with guidance and pilot cueing to land a helicopter, hover, and take off in DVE. During flight testing of the Brown Out Symbology System (BOSS) on an EH-60L Black Hawk, pilots reported very high workload requiring full concentration on the displays during approaches to landing in brownout. In order to reduce pilot workload, an approach to provide the pilot with a collective tactile cue based on coupling of the output of the approach to landing algorithms to the EH-60L collective trim servo was developed and flight tested. Flight testing of the coupled collective system demonstrated a reduction in pilot workload and increase in the pilot's situational awareness during landing in brownout. To further reduce pilot workload, the pilot cyclic and pedals have been coupled with the guidance symbology to allow for fully coupled landings. Details of the system are provided along with the initial results of flight testing of the system at Felker Army Airfield, Ft. Eustis VA.
LUSARDI, JEFFERY, Fujizawa, Brian, Cleary, Mark
Design and Experimental Evaluation of a Multi-Ship Sensor-Based 3D World Modeling ArchitectureF-0075-2019-147455/13/2019
There is emerging demand for multi-ship sensor-based 3D world modeling (3DWM) for autonomy/cognitive decision aiding avionics applications. In these systems, multiple ships collect and transmit perception sensor data that is fused into a common 3DWM, which is then used by other platforms for flight guidance in that environment. This paper illustrates key design considerations for these systems by exploring the fundamental scenario of leader-follower. This paper will detail the design trade space for the leader-follower scenario, focusing on 3DWM database representation/processing and data transmission. To demonstrate the feasibility of a baseline design approach on modern computing hardware, results will be presented from an experimental evaluation of a proof-of-concept system.
Boggs, Chris, Taylor, Max, Gavrilets, Vladislav
EMBEDDED INTERCHANGE FORMAT FOR OBSTACLE DATABASESARINC815 (Current)12/21/2018
This document defines an open encoding format for obstacle databases. This format, when designed and implemented, will enable a quick, economic, and efficient use of Obstacle Databases (ObsDBs). However, since industry does not require applications to be standardized, data interpretation is not addressed in this document.
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
Guidance on Mitigation Strategies Against Laser Illumination EffectsARP6378 (Current)6/2/2018
This document is intended to give guidance to users, regulators and persons in the aviation field who may be affected by the potential visual interference effects of lasers aimed at aircraft by the general public. The potential effects include startle (distraction, disruption, disorientation, and operational incapacitation), glare, and flashblindness. This document provides mitigation strategies against such effects, including operational procedures, pilot education, and the use of Laser Glare Protection. Prevention of harm from laser eye injuries is discussed but is not a focus of this document, due to the extremely low likelihood of injurious levels of laser light in typical aircraft illumination scenarios. Devices for detecting and reporting hazardous laser illuminations are briefly described in Appendix D, but are not a focus of this document. Some information in this document may also be useful for non-aviation users, such as persons driving vehicles. Additional information can be found in ANSI Z136.6, “Safe Use of Lasers Outdoors”.
G10-OL Operational Laser Committee
MULTI-MODE RECEIVER (MMR) - DIGITALARINC755-5 (Current)1/25/2018
ARINC Characteristic 755 defines a multi-mode receiver capable of providing flight path deviation guidance (corrections) to the aircraft during the approach and landing phase. The data source may be from an Instrument Landing System (ILS), a Microwave Landing System (MLS) or an GNSS Landing System (GLS). Supplement 5 adds annunciations defined in RTCA/DO-253D – MOPS for GPS LAAS Airborne Equipment. GNSS Data and GLS Config Validity ARINC 429 Labels are also updated. The range for Selected Glide Path Angle is corrected.
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
Flight Testing of Coupled Collective toward Reducing Pilot Workload during Landing in DVEF-0073-2017-120685/9/2017
ABSTRACT Landing helicopters in Degraded Visual Environments (DVE) is one of the most challenging maneuvers pilots perform. The US Army Aviation and Missile Research, Development and Engineering Center (AMRDEC) has been working to develop flight guidance and sensor systems to provide the pilot with guidance and pilot displays to land a helicopter, hover, and take off in DVE. During flight testing of the Brown Out Symbology System (BOSS) on an EH-60L, pilots reported very high workload requiring full concentration on the displays during approaches to landing in brownout. In order to reduce pilot workload, an approach to provide the pilot with a collective tactile cue based on coupling of the output of the symbology display algorithms to the EH-60L collective trim servo has been developed and flight tested. Details of the system are provided along with the results of flight testing conducted at the Yuma Proving Grounds comparing workload from approaches to landing in brownout with and without the collective coupling engaged.
Lusardi, Jeff, Fujizawa, Brian, Morford, Zachariah
Autopilot, Flight Director, and Autothrust SystemsARP5366 (Current)1/4/2017
This document recommends criteria for the design and installation of Autopilot, Flight Director and Autothrust Systems. These three systems are highly interrelated and will be referred to generically as an Integrated Flight Guidance System (IFGS).
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
Aircraft Flight Control Systems DescriptionsAIR4094A (Current)7/18/2016
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) supplies information on the flight control systems incorporated on various current and historic fixed wing, rotary wing, and tilt rotor aircraft. A brief description of the aircraft is followed by a description of the flight control system, some specific components, drawings of the internal arrangement, block diagrams, and schematics. System operation redundancy management is also presented.
A-6A3 Flight Control and Vehicle Management Systems Cmt
Descriptions of Systems Integration Test Rigs (Iron Birds) For Aerospace ApplicationsAIR5992 (Current)10/16/2015
This Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides information on systems integration rigs, commonly referred to as “Iron Birds” for aerospace applications. a It includes background historical information including descriptions of Iron Birds produced to date, important component elements and selection rationale, hydraulic system design and operational modes and illustrates the design approaches to be considered. b It provides illustrations of the various systems that should be considered for Iron Bird testing in the development phase and utilization during the production program. c It includes recommendations for simulation, component development tests, system integration and lessons learned.
A-6A3 Flight Control and Vehicle Management Systems Cmt
Simulation-Driven Methodology for the Requirements Verification and Safety Assessment of Innovative Flight Control Systems2015-01-24789/15/2015
The paradigm shift to focus on an enhancement of existing aircraft systems raises the question which of the many possible incremental improvements results in an advantageous solution still considering all existing requirements. Hence, new methodologies for aircraft system design are a prerequisite to cope with such huge and complex design spaces. In the case of flight control system optimization, major design variables are the control surface configuration and actuation as well as their functional allocation. Possible architecture topologies have to be verified inter alia with respect to system safety requirements. In this context, flight dynamic characteristics and handling qualities of the fully operational as well as of several degraded system states of each topology have to be evaluated and checked against common specifications. A model-based verification of the requirements is favorable, resulting in a rapid reduction of the design space. Safety objectives for valid configurations are derived and serve as an input for a subsequent safety assessment. This two-step methodology, a simulation-driven verification of handling quality requirements and a corresponding safety assessment, is presented in this paper. The methodology is intended to support the design engineer in the early concept phase of the system architecture development process. The handling quality analysis is based on a generic flight simulation environment. Using parametric library components, various aircraft and system configurations can be modelled and automatically evaluated via an associated tool suite. Furthermore, an in-house developed analysis tool for system safety is used to carry out the safety assessment based on reliability block diagrams of the flight control architectures. To validate the proposed methodology, an existing, conventional hydraulic-powered flight control system of a single-aisle short-range aircraft is evaluated with respect to its design and safety margins.
Kreitz, Tobias, Bornholdt, Riko, Krings, Matthias, Henning, Karsten, Thielecke, Frank
Improvements of the PLANET System for Real-Time Satellite Data Transmission During the HAIC-HIWC Darwin Field Campaign2015-01-21476/15/2015
The PLANET System was used for real-time satellite data transmission during the HAIC-HIWC Darwin field campaign (January to March 2014). The basic system was initially providing aircraft tracking, chat, weather text messages (METAR, TAF, etc.), and aeronautical information (NOTAMs) in a standalone application. In the framework of the HAIC project, many improvements were made in order to fulfill requirements of the onboard and ground science teams for the field campaign. The aim of this paper is to present the main improvements of the system that were implemented for the Darwin field campaign. New features of the system are related to the hardware component, the communication protocol, weather and tracking display, geomarkers on the map, and image processing and compression before onboard transfer.
Turner, Sandra, Gaubert, Jean-Marc, Gallois, Remy, Dacla, Thibault, Mullie, Ingrid, Bourdon, Aurelien, Dezitter, Fabien, Grandin, Alice, Protat, Alain, Potts, Rodney, Schwarzenboeck, Alfons, Strapp, J. Walter
Air-Ground Communications System Aims to Make Flying SaferTBMG-222986/1/2015
Reliance on old-fashioned radio contact by pilots and vulnerable tracking systems is still high, but satellites are set to change sky safety, thanks to international collaboration. The European Space Agency’s Iris program is looking to satellites to make aviation safer through modern communications. Worldwide digital data links via satellite, offering much higher capacity, will become the standard for cockpit crews, with voice communications kept as backup.
Small Airplane Considerations for the Guidelines for Development of Civil Aircraft and Systems2013-01-22339/17/2013
On September 30, 2011, certification authorities released Advisory Circular 20-174[1], Development of Civil Aircraft and Systems, which recognizes the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) 4754A and the European equivalent ED-79A [2], in order to address “the concern of possible development errors due to the ever increasing complexity of modern aircraft and systems.” ARP4754A/ED-79A describes a process of development assurance which helps reduce the risk of design errors in the development of aircraft systems. This process is necessary for complex systems not easily comprehended by deterministic analyses or tests. This ARP was developed “in the context of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 25,” a category which includes complex systems such as full fly-by-wire flight controls. However, this paper shows that such systems are the exception to most, recent civil airplane designs. Of new airplanes designed in the last 10 years, most implement systems which are simple and easily comprehended. Many of these simpler aircraft are in the part 23 category, which the AC also associates to this ARP. This paper shows that the ARP, as written, does not consider simple systems and may unnecessarily burden the development of such systems through this lack of recognition. This paper reviews the current diversity of system complexity, discusses the regulatory and technical drivers for this diversity, and provides recommendations for incorporating such considerations in the ARP while preserving its original intent.
Voros, Robert E.
Head Up and Eyes Out Enabling Equivalent Visual Operations with the Head Up Display2013-01-23009/17/2013
Following the introduction of Head-Up Displays (HUD) into commercial airplanes over 30 years ago, many aircraft manufacturers are now installing HUDs as baseline or as a selectable option on their latest designs. Most pilots that have used the HUD in difficult flying conditions prefer it to classic flight deck configurations with head-down displays only. This paper describes the features and benefits of the HUD that allow the pilot to remain head-up and eyes-out throughout the flight, especially in the crowded skies around an airport. This is achievable because the HUD provides all the primary flight information needed to fly the airplane. Some of the information is conformal to the outside world and the whole image is focused at optical infinity, eliminating the need for the pilot to refocus between the HUD symbology and real world features viewed through the HUD. Flight path based flying is intuitive, reducing workload and improving safety by allowing the pilot to maintain better situational awareness of the airplane's energy state. Use of HUD symbology enables increased flight and navigational accuracy to be achieved. Additionally, the HUD provides an advanced monitoring capability for the pilot while the airplane is in automated flight, and allows him/her to independently monitor the control loop, even when not in physical control of the airplane. This paper also discusses the capabilities of the Head-Up Guidance System (HGS™) as related to low visibility operations. Where these operations have been conducted traditionally with automatic guidance systems, the HGS provides the opportunity for pilots to manually conduct the approach, landing and rollout in visibilities as low as 600RVR and takeoffs to 300RVR. Several regulatory “Special Authorizations” have been developed to specifically take advantage of the HUD's low visibility capabilities, to allow increased operational flexibility. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Next Generation Air Transportation System will provide opportunities for Equivalent Visual Operations, which may allow VFR operational tempos, and potentially VFR procedures, to be maintained under low visibility conditions. Vision System technologies, already available on some airplanes, allow HUD symbology to be underlaid with a conformal view of terrain features ahead of the airplane. These technologies, supported by NASA research, allow for the integration of sensor-based Enhanced Vision, Synthetic Vision, and Combined Vision imagery for use both in the air and on the ground. An RTCA committee is defining performance standards for such Vision System technologies. These range from the use of Synthetic Vision, to achieve lower operational minima and increased situational awareness, to the use of sensor-based Enhanced Vision for approach, landing and taxi in visibilities as low as 300RVR. Both analysis and simulator/flight demonstrations, some sponsored by the FAA and NASA, continue to substantiate and quantify the safety benefits that can be realized in flying head-up with a HUD. The results of these studies continue to justify claims that the use of the HUD improves a pilot's accuracy and consistency in performing flight operations, particularly in the terminal area, leading to increased flight safety.
Barber, Sarah, Schwab, Dean, Zimmerman, Ken
Automatic PilotsAS402C (Current)8/22/2012
This Aeronautical Standard covers Automatic Pilots intended for use on aircraft to automatically operate the aerodynamic controls to maintain flight and/or to provide maneuvering about the three axes through servo control.
A-4 Aircraft Instruments Committee
Design and Flight Test of a Primary Flight Display Combined Vision System2011-01-252510/18/2011
A series of flight tests were conducted to design and evaluate a Combined Vision System (CVS) that integrates a forward looking infrared video image with synthetic vision on a primary flight display. System features included colorizing the video image to mesh with the synthetic terrain background, decluttering the approach symbology to facilitate the detection of the approach lights and runway markings, creating a semi-transparent IR sky to ensure continuous situational awareness of the surrounding terrain, and annunciating the decision height to facilitate the transition to the actual runway environment. Over 100 approaches were flown during three flight test sessions. For the first flight test session pilots reviewed early CVS proofs of concept on Honeywell's Citation Sovereign. During the approach in low visibility conditions, the Pilot Flying remained head-down to 100 ft AGL, at which time he lifted his head and made a subjective judgment of whether he could easily and safely complete the transition to land before making a go-around. In the second flight test session enhancements included IR image coloring, IRS/GPS navigation system integration, and display annunciations. The series of flight tests culminated in a CVS integration on Honeywell's Gulfstream G450 aircraft for a direct head-up display (HUD) versus head-down display (HDD) comparison of the IR imagery. The HUD location is currently the standard for low visibility approaches with IR imagery. The G450 evaluation had three highly experienced pilots with an average of over 12,000 flight hours and over 2,500 hours with a HUD. They flew a total of 46 approaches, most to full-stop landings and many were in high workload conditions - low visibility weather or strong crosswinds. Again the Pilot Flying stayed head-down to 100 ft AGL and then transitioned to the outside view of actual runway environment before landing. Pilot performance with the CVS was equivalent to performance with the HUD on all flight parameters including glideslope deviation, airspeed deviation, configuration to land at the crossing threshold, and the landing footprint on the runway.Workload scores and display ratings were equivalent between the two displays, giving a strong indication that the Honeywell CVS provides equivalent performance and an alternative means to the HUD for displaying the IR imagery.
Ververs, Patricia May, He, Gang, Suddreth, John, Odgers, Rob, Engels, Jary, Wyatt, Ivan, Hughes, Keith, Hamblin, Christopher, Feyereisen, Thea
MULTI-MODE RECEIVER (MMR)-DIGITALARINC755-4 (Current)6/30/2010
This document defines an ILS/MLS/GLS multi-mode receiver that provides the flight path deviation guidance to the aircraft during the final approach and landing phase. The data sources may be Instrument Landing System (ILS), Microwave Landing System (MLS) or GNSS Landing System (GLS). Supplement 4 adds ILS look-alike data (ARINC 429) in support of GLS CAT II/III operation. It also defines Final Approach Segment Data Messages (FASDM) input labels to the MMR for new aircraft.
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
Aircraft Level Steering Runaway Failure Analysis2009-01-313611/10/2009
Integration of aircraft landing gear systems requires a high level of knowledge and understanding of these systems and how they contribute to aircraft performance. This paper considers a specific design requirement for the steering system. Failure of the steering system, resulting in the aircraft leaving the runway at high speed, can be considered hazardous or even catastrophic. The ability of the system to detect such a failure and take appropriate action is a key aspect of the design. This paper describes an aircraft level steering runaway failure analysis using an aircraft level mechanical and hydraulic control coupled simulation model. The aircraft level simulation model includes aircraft structure, weight and inertia. Appropriate loads and forces (engine thrust, aerodynamic forces, lift, drag) and moments are then applied. The model also includes nose and main landing gears, brakes and tires. The steering system model includes all hydraulic and control components, with failure triggers and steering failure detection logic. The aircraft level steering runaway failure analysis is carried out under different aircraft operations (taxi speeds, weights) in order to identify the most severe condition. In this model, differential braking is applied to simulate a pilot corrective action after the failure is detected. The analysis results show that the aircraft level steering model is able to determine the aircraft landing gear deviation from the runway centerline under failure conditions, with and without pilot corrective actions, and to assess the pilot reaction time required to bring the aircraft back to its runway centerline after the failure occurs. This analysis can be performed during early design stage to evaluate steering system sizing and other performance characteristics and the particular dynamic characteristics of the steering controller. This paper is addressed to the landing gear system performance specialists, who analyze similar conditions, to allow comparison of methods and results.
Wang, Phillip, Dacko, Les, Keller, Nicolas, Wu, Jiangning
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS DATABASEARINC424-19 (Current)12/19/2008
THE CURRENT VERSION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS 424-21. THIS PREVIOUS VERSION IS AVAILABLE FOR YOUR CONVENIENCE. This standard provides a data base comprising standards used for the preparation of a navigation system data base. This data may be used with the operational flight software in a wide range of navigational equipment.
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee
HUMAN ENGINEERING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DATA LINK SYSTEMSARP4791A (Historical)2/16/2008
This document sets forth general, functional, procedural, and design criteria and recommendations concerning human engineering of data link systems. The recommendations are based on limited evidence from empirical and analytic studies of simulated data link communication, and on experience from operational tests and actual use of data link. However, because data are not yet available to support recommendations on all potentially critical human engineering issues these recommendations necessarily go beyond the data link research and include requirements based on related research and human factors engineering practice. It is also recognized that evolution of these recommendations will be appropriate as experience with data link accumulates and new applications are implemented. This document focuses primarily on recommendations for data link communications between an air traffic specialist and a pilot, i.e., air traffic services communications, although some recommendations address use of data link for flight information services. Unless otherwise specified within the text, all recommendations apply to both flight deck and ground-based data link systems. This document is intended as a guide for development and evaluation of data link systems. Human engineering considerations are an important element of data link system performance. As illustrated in Figure 1, human engineering recommendations address many component functions required for effective data link communication services in the operational environment. For presentation purposes, the recommendations are divided into five sections: General, functional, procedures, flight deck/air traffic service (ATS) workstation integration, and human-computer interface. To facilitate understanding and use of this document appropriate cross-references to interrelated recommendations appear in parentheses throughout the text.
G-10 Executive Advisory Group
An Electro - Mechanical Actuator for General Aviation Aircraft2007-01-39009/17/2007
The Institute of Aircraft Systems at the University of Stuttgart, Germany is developing an Easy Control System (ECS), with the primary goal to make General Aviation aircraft capable to cover the needs of future individual traffic. Objectives of the ECS are a significant reduction of pilot workload, an increase in safety and an increase in aircraft performance by providing all-time easy and safe handling qualities with advanced control and protection functions. Due to the focus of applicability in General Aviation aircraft and corresponding certification efforts the ECS requires the development of a highly integrated, absolutely safety critical, all-electric full fly-by-wire platform with low risk investment capability for both supplier and customer. One of the primary elements of this platform is an electro-mechanical actuator driving the aerodynamic control surfaces of the aircraft. Based on requirements defined by the Institute of Aircraft Systems, a prototype of this actuator was developed by the Harmonic Drive AG. This paper describes the main features and challenges in developing the actuator prototype. After a short introduction of the ECS and overview over the requirements, the design of the prototype by its technical features is presented. Furthermore first test results of the actuator are shown.
Hesse, S., Konrad, G., Reichel, R., Schäfer, I., Bourlier, P., Buff, M.
Airborne Windshear SystemsARP4102/11C (Current)7/11/2007
This document recommends criteria for Airborne Windshear Systems, including operational objectives, characteristics, and functional requirements. The recommendations in this document apply to transport aircraft, and describe the operational objectives of windshear alerting systems, situational displays, guidance systems, and avoidance/ detection systems.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
DATA LINKARP4102/13A (Current)7/11/2007
This document recommends criteria for a system designed to manage and communicate information via data link to support flight operations.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
Design Objectives for Handling Qualities of Transport AircraftARP4104 (Current)7/11/2007
This document specifies the requirements for the design objectives for handling qualities applicable to transport aircraft operating in the subsonic, transonic, and supersonic speed range. These objectives are not necessarily applicable to rotor or VTOL aircraft.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
Electronic DisplaysARP4102/7 (Current)7/10/2007
This document recommends criteria for electronic displays on the flight deck of transport aircraft. Electronic displays include electronic flight instruments, alert displays, aircraft system displays and control/display units for flight management and radio management systems.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
FLIGHT DECK PANELS, CONTROLS, AND DISPLAYSARP4102 (Current)7/10/2007
This document recommends criteria for the design, installation and operation of panels, controls, and displays on the flight deck of transport aircraft.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
Final Approach Spacing System (FASS)ARP5628 (Current)11/28/2005
This document recommends criteria and requirements for a Final Approach Spacing System (FASS) for transport aircraft. This is an Aerospace Recommended Practice to support the development of a Final Approach Spacing System (FASS) for Approach Spacing for Instrument Approaches (ASIA) operations.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
Response of an Advanced Flight Control System to Microburst Encounters2005-01-342010/3/2005
An envelope protection scheme is proposed for responding to a microburst. This approach is based on limiting the allowable maximum inertial deceleration of the aircraft when flying at low airspeeds. This technique is shown in simulations to be very effective at preventing stall and resulting in minimal loss of altitude. It is speculated that the same scheme can also protect an aircraft in the event of other forms of windshear encounters, such as making a sudden turn to downwind.
Rokhsaz, K., Steck, J. E., Chandramohan, R., Singh, B.
Fundamentals of FBW Augmented Manual Control2005-01-341910/3/2005
This paper examines various FBW augmented manual control design options and criteria for achieving desired handling qualities. Design concepts with different “response types” will be reviewed. The author will re-interpret some of the classical Handling Qualities criteria in light of desired response characteristics in the time domain, which can then be evaluated through simulation time histories. A design methodology is discussed that can provide the same aircraft responses to pilot control inputs for different response types, e.g. Pitch Rate Command/Attitude Hold and Flight Path Angle (FPA) Rate Command / FPA Hold designs. The role of various feedback and feed forward signal paths and ways to minimize the need for gain scheduling, is discussed.
Lambregts, Anthony A.
Summary of NASA's Extreme Short Take-Off and Landing (ESTOL) Vehicle Sector Activities2005-01-314510/3/2005
NASA is exploring a research activity to identify the technologies that will enable an Extreme Short Take-Off and Landing (ESTOL) aircraft. ESTOL aircraft have the potential to offer a viable solution to airport congestion, delay, capacity, and community noise concerns. This can be achieved by efficiently operating in the underutilized or unused airport ground and airspace infrastructure, while operating simultaneously, but not interfering with, conventional air traffic takeoffs and landings. Concurrently, the Air Force is exploring ESTOL vehicle solutions in the same general performance class as the NASA ESTOL vehicle to meet a number of Advanced Air Mobility missions. The capability goals of both the military and civil vehicles suggests synergistic technology development benefits. This paper presents a summary of the activities being supported by the NASA ESTOL Vehicle Sector.
Zuk, John, Wardwell, Douglas A.
Real-Time Simulation of Aeroheating the Hyper-X AirplaneTBMG-1681/1/2005
A capability for real-time computational simulation of aeroheating has been developed in support of the Hyper-X program, which is directed toward demonstrating the feasibility of operating an air-breathing ramjet/scramjet engine at mach 5, mach 7, and mach 10. The simulation software will serve as a valuable design tool for initial trajectory studies in which aerodynamic heating is expected to exert a major influence in the design of the Hyper-X airplane; this tool will aid in the selection of materials, sizing of structural skin thicknesses, and selection of components of a thermal-protection system (TPS) for structures that must be insulated against aeroheating.
Automatic PilotsAS402B (Historical)7/1/2001
This Aeronautical Standard covers Automatic Pilots intended for use on aircraft to automatically operate the aerodynamic controls to maintain flight and/or to provide maneuvering about the three axes through servo control.
A-4 Aircraft Instruments Committee
Staying Ahead of the Automation: A Vertical Situation Display Can Help2000-01-561410/10/2000
In this paper we present a Vertical Situation Display (VSD) for Flight Management System equipped aircraft. It was developed, implemented and evaluated in the Advanced Concepts Flight Simulator at NASA Ames Research Center. The VSD was designed to support flight crews in managing the vertical flight path when using high levels of aircraft automation inside Terminal Areas.
Prevot, Thomas, Palmer, Everett
Costs and Benefits of Head up Displays: An Attention Perspective and a Meta Analysis2000-01-554210/10/2000
This paper reports a meta analysis of all studies located in the literature that have compared head up versus head down display of equivalent information, as these displays support both tracking (e.g., flight path control) and discrete event detection. The data clearly indicate a HUD advantage for most tasks, except tracking during cruise flight and event detection during final approach. The latter HUD cost however is observed only when events to be detected are entirely unexpected, reflecting a form of cognitive tunneling. The meta-analysis also reveals an advantage for conformal over non-conformal HUD imagery.
Fadden, Steven, Wickens, Christopher D., Ververs, Patricia
Human Factor Issues Associated with HUD-Based Hybrid Landing Systems: SEXTANT’s Experience1999-01-551210/19/1999
HUD-based hybrid landing systems developed by SEXTANT Avionics have been successfully certified for AEROPOSTALE and ALITALIA. The philosophy of such system is to offer minima reductions (down to DH 35 ft and RVR 125 m) with automatic Cat 3A operations. From a human factors stand point, the basis of such an approach is that improved situational awareness provided by the HUD allows to maintain an acceptable safety level for operations despite lower DH and visibility. Though, it is well known that switching from a supervisory control mode to a manual control mode under time pressure is a very serious challenge for the human operator. In this regard, numerous human factors issues were addressed during the concept validation phase and results applied to certification. This was particularly true for difficult exercises , as manual go around at DH with one engine out on the B-737, where it had to be demonstrated that specific information provided in the HUD allowed to keep an acceptable level of safety. Training issues are also of importance to operate the aircraft and in-service operational feed back start now to be available.
Audrezet, H., Alba, P.
Flight Simulation and Aeronautical Education - Ten Years of Experience97563510/1/1997
The inclusion of flight simulation into the undergraduate aeronautical engineering curriculum has been a major goal at the U.S. Air Force Academy during the past ten years. Specifically, flight simulation has been used in four flight mechanics/design courses with excellent results. Junior and senior-level aeronautical engineering students are provided the opportunity to “fly” and evaluate a variety of aircraft configurations and flight situations. This paper reviews simulation projects that are used in each of the four courses and highlights lessons learned over the past ten years. The integration of flight simulation into these courses has been very effective as an educational tool and has become a strength of our “hand-on” program.
Yechout, Thomas R., Morris, Steven L.
The Effects of Linear Microphone Array Changes on Computed Sound Exposure Level Footprints9720115/20/1997
Airport land planning commissions often are faced with determining how much area around an airport is affected by the sound exposure levels (SELs) associated with helicopter operations. This paper presents a study of the effects changing the size and composition of a microphone array has on the computed SEL contour (ground footprint) areas used by such commissions. Descent flight acoustic data measured by a fifteen microphone array were reprocessed for five different combinations of microphones within this array. This resulted in data for six different arrays for which SEL contours were computed. The fifteen microphone array was defined as the “baseline” array since it contained the greatest amount of data. The computations used a newly developed technique, the Acoustic Re-propagation Technique (ART), which uses parts of the NASA noise prediction program ROTONET. After the areas of the SEL contours were calculated the differences between the areas were determined. The area differences for the six arrays are presented that show a five and a three microphone array (with spacing typical of that required by the FAA FAR Part 36 noise certification procedure) compare well with the fifteen microphone array. All data were obtained from a database resulting from a joint project conducted by NASA and U.S. Army researchers at Langley and Ames Research Centers. A brief description of the joint project test design, microphone array set-up, and data reduction methodology associated with the database are discussed.
Wilson, Mark R., Mueller, Arnold W.
Development of an Interactive Computerized Aircraft Design System96552910/1/1996
During the last decades a great number of new technologies have been developed to increase the efficiency and safety of new aircraft. Many of these technologies demand, however, a completely different design philosophy, design approach and organization of the design process. At the same time the fast growing capacity of modern computer systems has opened up the possibility of more accurate design and analysis, interactive design, design optimization and strategic design management. In many cases this has led to a complete reconsideration and reorganization of the entire design process. In order to keep pace with these developments and to be able to make a contribution to future developments in this field the ICADS Interactive Computerized Aircraft Design System was set up. This system must enable us to make students and designers familiar with advanced design methods and the logic behind it. This paper describes the causes and reasons for the lay-out of the system as well as the design organization, the design procedures, the computer environment and some of the essential computer programs as used in the system.
Seffinga, B. F.
AUTOMATIC PILOTS (Turbine Powered Subsonic Aircraft)AS440A (Historical)9/1/1996
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) covers automatic pilots intended for use on aircraft to automatically operate the primary and trim aerodynamic controls to maintain stable flight and/or to provide maneuvering about any of the three axes through servo control. Automatic control functions essential for primary or augmented flight control are excluded.
A-4 Aircraft Instruments Committee
Development of the McDonnell Douglas MD-909520529/1/1995
Douglas developed the MD-90, an IAE V2500-powered derivative of the MD-80, to satisfy a customer need for a more environmentally - friendly 150-seat, short/medium range jet transport. The program was launched in late 1989 with requirements to: significantly reduce community noise and engine emissions improve aircraft fuel efficiency make other technical improvements where cost effective for the customer. The aircraft was certificated in November 1994 and entered airline service in April 1995. The MD-90 meets all of its technical requirements.
Kressly, Arthur E., Parker, Anthony C.
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (FMS)ARP4102/9 (Historical)5/1/1995
This document recommends criteria and requirements for a Flight Management System (FMS) for transport aircraft.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
Helicopter Unique Instrument Approaches: Trajectories, Flying Qualities, Controls and Displays94216510/1/1994
The paper presents an argument for combining the precision of GPS with robust slow speed agility of the helicopter to support the wide implementation of a helicopter precision track GPS (HPT-GPS) instrument approach. The autonomous nature of the approach suggests that it is particularly suited for use at small airports and heliports. This capability is then characterized as providing an affordable way to facilitate the integration of rotorcraft Into the National Airspace System to facilitate commerce and Emergency Medical Service (EMS) to areas that are otherwise poorly served by aviation during poor weather. The paper defines a new minimum approach airspeed (VMAP) which applies to the last segment of the approach. This segment involves a descent to a Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) and continued flight to a Helicopter Visual Descent Point (HVDP) which is expected to be located 150 feet or more above or beyond the runway threshold. A series of charts is used to explain the relationship between VMAP and the current minimum airspeed for instrument flight (vMlNl). Tne paper concludes with a justification for displaying both ground speed and airspeed and suggests formats for both. This includes a examination of the need to extend the useful range of the airspeed system down to 20 Knots Calibrated Airspeed (KCAS) to facilitate a safe operating margin below a VMAP of 30 KCAS.
Kimberlin, Ralph D., Green, David L.
Improved Operational Reliability and Safety with HUD - The Alaska Airlines Experience94211410/1/1994
This paper relates the experience of Alaska Airlines in the acquisition and operation of the Heads Up Display (HUD) on it's fleet of 23 Boeing 727-200 aircraft. The airline has accrued more than five years of successful experience with the system since it's first installation in late 1987. In using this system for approaches to Category IIIa (Cat IIIa) weather minimums, Alaska differs from most prior HUD users in that the approaches are flown and landed manually, as opposed to the more common use of the HUD to monitor the autopilot during a coupled, autoland approach.
Kaiser, Kim J.
Flight Deck Automation: Problems and Concerns as Reported in the Aviation Safety Reporting System94209410/1/1994
Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) reports were analyzed to identify flight deck operational problems related to aircraft automation systems, particularly those problems that may be exacerbated by the addition of data link systems. Four major automation problem groups were discovered (Automation Failure, Programming Errors, Distraction- Programming, and Mismanagement-Confusion). Also, several automation-induced errors were identified (e.g., runway incursions and altitude deviations). The reports are classified by attributes such as automation system and flight error. Each automation group is discussed, and based on a limited sample of reports, conclusions are drawn; with respect to data link, potential positive and negative impacts are described.
Reynolds, Michael, Neumeier, Mark, Mitman, Robert
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