Browse Topic: Flight control actuators

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Electrohydrostatic Actuation Applications on Aircraft ProgramsAIR6353 (Current)11/26/2025
This document will maintain a listing of all current and new EHA/EBHA aircraft applications, including parameters such as power, force, rate, etc, as is permissible for public offering.
A-6B2 Electrohydrostatic Actuation Committee
Graphic Symbols for Aircraft Hydraulic and Pneumatic SystemsAS1290C (Current)2/12/2021
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) provides a system of graphic symbols and line codings that are intended primarily for usage in hydraulic and pneumatic system schematic diagrams for all types of aircraft.
A-6 Aerospace Actuation, Control and Fluid Power Systems
Aerospace Fluid Power - Contamination Sensitivity - Considerations for Establishing Test Procedures for Flight Control ActuatorsARP5941 (Current)10/9/2020
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) describes the design conditions under which tests should be conducted to demonstrate satisfactory performance of a flight critical servo-actuator under the maximum allowable particulate contamination in the associated airplane hydraulic system. Additionally, this document also describes the recommended tests and the required acceptance criteria.
A-6B1 Hydraulic Servo Actuation Committee
High-Performance, Piezoelectric, Hybrid Synthetic Jet ActuatorsTBMG-361813/1/2020
NASA Langley Research Center has invented three serial high-performance, piezoelectric, hybrid synthetic jet actuators to provide active flow control for current and future wing-borne vehicles in subsonic, transonic, and supersonic flow. Effective active flow control results in reduced vehicle drag and the prevention of events that can lead to catastrophic loss.
In-Service Reliability Data of Continuously Active Ball Screw and Geared Flight Control Actuation SystemsAIR5713A (Current)10/14/2019
This Aerospace Information Report (AIR) has been written to provide in-service reliability data of continuously active ball screw and geared flight control actuation systems.
A-6B3 Electro-Mechanical Actuation Committee
Flight Control Actuators - Dynamic Seals, Collection of Duty Cycle DataARP4895B (Current)5/16/2019
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) provides an algorithm aimed to analyze flight control surface actuator movements with the objective to generate duty cycle data applicable to hydraulic actuator dynamic seals.
A-6A3 Flight Control and Vehicle Management Systems Cmt
Automated 6DOF Model Generation and Actuator Sizing within AFSIM2019-01-13363/19/2019
The Air Force Research Laboratory has interest in automatically generating the extensive aerodynamic databases essential for six degree of freedom (6DOF) models and the use of 6DOF models for design. To be most useful, automation must include all aspects of producing the database including meshing, control surface deflections, running the CFD solution, and storage of the results. This effort applies newly-developed software to produce the desired results. Firstly, AFRL software called Computational Aircraft Prototype Syntheses (CAPS) allows automated meshing using the Advancing Front Local Reconnection (AFLR) software from Mississippi State University1 and automated control surface deflection using Engineering Sketch Pad (ESP) software from MIT/Syracuse. CAPS includes the ability to run the NASA CFD code FUN3D and interpret the FUN3D results via an Application Interface Module (AIM). This may sound like a complicated process. However, it is quite simple using a python interface to CAPS called pyCAPS. The automated generation of the aerodynamic database for the 6DOF model is handled by use of a short python script that includes nested loops that handle the numerous CFD runs to capture the combinations of angle-of-attack, sideslip angle, and control surface deflections needed for the database. This database is then paired with an appropriate controller and other information, like propulsion data and mass property data, to form the complete 6DOF model. Of interest is the design of actuators that are attached to the aircraft control surfaces. The 6DOF model is then used to fly the aircraft through an Operational Analysis (OA) scenario in AFSIM (Advanced Framework for Simulation, Integration and Modeling) where maneuvers and environmental conditions like gusts or turbulence are simulated. The entire process is shown to be tractable and accessible.
Allison, Darcy, Shimmin, Kyle, Schley, William, Bryson, Dean
Streamlining EMC Solutions for Avionics Interfaces19AERP02_042/1/2019
Lightning strikes to jet airliners are common - about once every 1000 flight hours. The DO-160G standard, Environmental Conditions and Test Procedures for Airborne Equipment, is a standard for the environmental testing of avionics hardware. Many airplane manufacturers specify DO-160G Section 22, lightning induced transient susceptibility, as a requirement for critical systems like guidance, radars, communications, engine control, and heat and air controls. Aircraft fuselage, wing and tail flight controls, wing tips, fin tips, engine nacelles, and landing gear are the areas most likely to be hit by lightning strikes. Modern aircraft are designed with fly by wire systems for flight controls. Fly by wire means that inputs from either flight control computers or pilot manual inputs are transmitted electrically to a servomotor, which controls flight control actuators. Communication interfaces for these flight control systems can be implemented on an RS-485 physical layer. Communication interfaces for aircraft engine management control can also be implemented with an RS-485 physical layer. The full authority digital engine control (FADEC) systems installed on aircraft engines are responsible for monitoring temperatures, pressure, and fuel flow, among other parameters.
Streamlining EMC Solutions for Avionics InterfacesTBMG-337732/1/2019
Lightning strikes to jet airliners are common - about once every 1000 flight hours. The DO-160G standard, Environmental Conditions and Test Procedures for Airborne Equipment, is a standard for the environmental testing of avionics hardware. Many airplane manufacturers specify DO-160G Section 22, lightning induced transient susceptibility, as a requirement for critical systems like guidance, radars, communications, engine control, and heat and air controls. Aircraft fuselage, wing and tail flight controls, wing tips, fin tips, engine nacelles, and landing gear are the areas most likely to be hit by lightning strikes.
Airborne Hydraulic and Control System Survivability for Military AircraftAIR1083C (Current)8/23/2018
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides the hydraulic and flight-control system designer with the various design options and techniques that are currently available to enhance the survivability of military aircraft. The AIR addresses the following major topics: a Design concepts and architecture (see 3.2, 3.5, and 3.6) b Design implementation (see 3.3, 3.6, and 3.7) c Means to control external leakage (see 3.4) d Component design (see 3.8)
A-6A2 Military Aircraft Committee
Improving Component Life in Abrasive, Corrosive Aerospace EnvironmentsTBMG-290796/1/2018
In industries such as aerospace, characterized by extreme operating environments that push materials and components to the edge of their design capabilities, companies are challenged to continually seek economically viable ways to maintain and improve performance.
Document for 270 Voltage Direct Current (270 V DC) SystemARP4729A (Current)11/30/2017
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) provides technical design and application information related to the generation, distribution, control, and utilization of aircraft 270 V DC electrical power systems and support equipment. This document also provides references and definitions to permit comparisons of various electrical systems and components.
AE-7C Systems
Framework for Modelling and Simulation of Multi-Physics Aircraft Systems with Distributed Electronic Controllers2017-01-21159/19/2017
Multi-physics interactions between structural, electrical, thermal, or hydraulic components and the high level of system integration, characteristic of new aircraft designs, is increasing the complexity of both design and verification processes. Therefore the availability of tools, supporting integrated modelling, simulation, optimization and testing across all stages of aircraft design remains a critical challenge. This paper presents some results of the project MISSION (Modelling and Simulation Tools for Systems Integration on Aircraft). It is a collaborative task being developed under the European Union Clean Sky 2 Program, which is a public-private partnership bringing together aeronautics industrial leaders and public research organizations based in Europe. The first levels of integration of different models and tools proposed in the MISSION framework will be presented, along with simulation results. The paper will highlight the workflow to perform the various stages of virtual testing and the proposed way to exchange artifacts within the modelling and analysis framework. The considered system under test is an electromechanical flight control actuator together with the related control logic. The plant system is natively a physical model based on MODELICA and the causal control system is natively a MATLAB/Simulink model. These models are used in different PC-based simulation platforms, in order to perform virtual tests of different maturity levels of the embedded system by Model-in-the-Loop (with ESI ITI SimulationX and MATLAB/Simulink), Software-in-the-Loop (with dSPACE VEOS) and Virtual-Processor-in-the-Loop (with ALES DESYRE). The alignment of the simulation results demonstrates the successful model based integration. In addition, some tool specific results and metrics are presented.
Burgio, Gilberto, Mangeruca, Leonardo, Ferrari, Alberto, Carloni, Marco, Valdivia-Guerrero, Virgilio, Albiol-Tendillo, Laura, Govindaraju, Parithi, Gottschall, Marcel, Oelsner, Olaf, Reglitz, Sören, Stavesand, Jann-Eve, Himmler, Andreas, Yapi, Lionel
Aerospace Fluid Power Electrohydrostatic Module, Design, Performance and Test RecommendationsARP6154 (Current)3/15/2017
This Aerospace Recommended Practice provides general requirements for Electrohydrostatic Module (EHM) that is used in Electrohydrostatic Actuator (EHA) for aerospace applications. This document includes design, performance and test (production and qualification) requirements.
A-6B2 Electrohydrostatic Actuation Committee
Aerospace Hydraulics and Actuation Lessons LearnedAIR4543/1A (Current)2/23/2017
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) contains Lessons Learned from aerospace actuation, control and fluid power systems technologies. The lessons were prepared by engineers from the aerospace industry and government services as part of the work of SAE Committee A-6, Aerospace Actuation, Control and Fluid Power Systems. Each lesson was presented to the appropriate A-6 technical panel. The technical topics are organized into five sections covering systems, actuation, hydraulic components, electrical components and miscellaneous, each further divided into subsections. The information topics are presented in a concise format of Problem, Issue, Solution and Lesson Learned, often with accompanying descriptive diagrams and illustrations for clarity and understanding.
A-6 Aerospace Actuation, Control and Fluid Power Systems
Actuators, Linear Mechanical, General Specification GuideARP5812 (Current)2/2/2017
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) establishes design, manufacturing performance and test requirements for linear mechanical actuators intended to be used for linear motion applications in response to manual or automatic power control system inputs. It is applicable, but not confined to, ball screws, sliding contact screws, roller screws, helical splines, rack and pinion assemblies, and skewed roller actuators. It is a reference for preparing detail specifications for mechanical actuators compatible and applicable to military or commercial aircraft systems.
A-6B3 Electro-Mechanical Actuation Committee
Modelling and Simulation Tools for Systems Integration on Aircraft2016-01-20529/20/2016
This paper presents an overview of a project called “Modelling and Simulation Tools for Systems Integration on Aircraft (MISSION)”. This is a collaborative project being developed under the European Union Clean Sky 2 Program, a public-private partnership bringing together aeronautics industrial leaders and public research organizations based in Europe. The provision of integrated modeling, simulation, and optimization tools to effectively support all stages of aircraft design remains a critical challenge in the Aerospace industry. In particular the high level of system integration that is characteristic of new aircraft designs is dramatically increasing the complexity of both design and verification. Simultaneously, the multi-physics interactions between structural, electrical, thermal, and hydraulic components have become more significant as the systems become increasingly interconnected. The aim of MISSION is to develop and demonstrate an integrated modeling, simulation, design and optimization framework incorporating Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) principles oriented to the Aerospace industry. This framework will holistically support the design, development and validation process of an aircraft, starting from conceptual aircraft-level design, toward capture of key requirements, system design, software design, integration, validation and verification. In order to achieve this goal, MISSION will deliver a core modeling and simulation environment, primarily based on the Modelica language for modeling of multi-physics systems, which incorporates dedicated platforms and toolsets for aircraft-level design and optimization, system-level design and optimization, model-based controls and virtual testing. The paper outlines the technical development program, the challenges being addressed and the benefits that this framework will bring to the Aerospace industry.
Valdivia-Guerrero, Virgilio, Foley, Ray, Riverso, Stefano, Govindaraju, Parithi, Elsheikh, Atiyah, Mangeruca, Leonardo, Burgio, Gilberto, Ferrari, Alberto, Gottschall, Marcel, Blochwitz, Torsten, Bloch, Serge, Taylor, Danielle, Hayes-McCoy, Declan, Himmler, Andreas
Virtual Integration of an All-Electric Flight Control System Architecture and the Aircraft Electrical Power Distribution Network2016-01-20349/20/2016
The aviation industry is facing major challenges due to increased environmental requirements that are driven by economic constraints. For this reason, guidelines like "Flightpath 2050", the official guide of European aviation, call for significant reductions in pollutant emissions. The concept of the More Electric Aircraft offers promising perspectives to meet these demands. A key-enabler for this concept is the integration of new technologies on board of the next generation of civil transportation aircraft. Examples are electro-mechanical actuators for primary and secondary flight controls or the fuel cell technology as innovative electrical energy supply system. Due to the high complexity and interdisciplinarity, the development of such systems is an equally challenging and time-consuming process. To support the classical development process, a continuous model-based approach for the design and test of complex aircraft systems is currently developed at the Hamburg University of Technology. In addition to the computer-aided engineering, this approach includes the implementation of virtual integration studies at the system level. This feature provides the opportunity for an early execution of performance evaluations to assess the system requirements and identify errors before a real prototype has emerged. Within this paper, this approach is described in further detail and illustrated on the basis of an exemplary case study, dealing with the virtual integration of an all-electric flight control system architecture into the electrical power distribution network of a single-aisle short-range research aircraft.
Kreitz, Tobias, Thielecke, Frank
Aircraft Flight Control Systems DescriptionsAIR4094A (Current)7/18/2016
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) supplies information on the flight control systems incorporated on various current and historic fixed wing, rotary wing, and tilt rotor aircraft. A brief description of the aircraft is followed by a description of the flight control system, some specific components, drawings of the internal arrangement, block diagrams, and schematics. System operation redundancy management is also presented.
A-6A3 Flight Control and Vehicle Management Systems Cmt
Loss-of-Control Mishaps in Revenue Airline ServiceAIR6237 (Current)7/12/2016
The scope of this document is to provide review of recent history of loss-of-control accidents during airline revenue operations.
S-7 Flight Deck Handling Qualities Stds for Trans Aircraft
Aerospace-Interface Definition for Mechanical Actuation SubsystemsARP5311 (Current)3/5/2016
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) defines all the relevant issues that affect the generation of an Interface Control Document for Mechanical Actuation Sub-Systems. It is intended to provide to all parties involved with the generation of Mechanical Actuation Sub-Systems, a definition of documentation, drawings, reports and design parameters required to assure a successful development of mechanical actuation sub-systems for Aerospace-Military and Commercial applications.
A-6B3 Electro-Mechanical Actuation Committee
Primary Flight Control Hydraulic Actuation System Interface DefinitionAIR4922A (Current)10/19/2015
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides a description of the interfaces and their requirements for generic and specific hydraulic actuation systems used in the flight control systems of manned aircraft. Included are the basic control system characteristics and functional requirements, and the essential interfaces (structural, mechanical, hydraulic power, control input, status monitoring, and environment). Major design issues, requirements, and other considerations are presented and discussed.
A-6A3 Flight Control and Vehicle Management Systems Cmt
Descriptions of Systems Integration Test Rigs (Iron Birds) For Aerospace ApplicationsAIR5992 (Current)10/16/2015
This Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides information on systems integration rigs, commonly referred to as “Iron Birds” for aerospace applications. a It includes background historical information including descriptions of Iron Birds produced to date, important component elements and selection rationale, hydraulic system design and operational modes and illustrates the design approaches to be considered. b It provides illustrations of the various systems that should be considered for Iron Bird testing in the development phase and utilization during the production program. c It includes recommendations for simulation, component development tests, system integration and lessons learned.
A-6A3 Flight Control and Vehicle Management Systems Cmt
Simulation-Driven Methodology for the Requirements Verification and Safety Assessment of Innovative Flight Control Systems2015-01-24789/15/2015
The paradigm shift to focus on an enhancement of existing aircraft systems raises the question which of the many possible incremental improvements results in an advantageous solution still considering all existing requirements. Hence, new methodologies for aircraft system design are a prerequisite to cope with such huge and complex design spaces. In the case of flight control system optimization, major design variables are the control surface configuration and actuation as well as their functional allocation. Possible architecture topologies have to be verified inter alia with respect to system safety requirements. In this context, flight dynamic characteristics and handling qualities of the fully operational as well as of several degraded system states of each topology have to be evaluated and checked against common specifications. A model-based verification of the requirements is favorable, resulting in a rapid reduction of the design space. Safety objectives for valid configurations are derived and serve as an input for a subsequent safety assessment. This two-step methodology, a simulation-driven verification of handling quality requirements and a corresponding safety assessment, is presented in this paper. The methodology is intended to support the design engineer in the early concept phase of the system architecture development process. The handling quality analysis is based on a generic flight simulation environment. Using parametric library components, various aircraft and system configurations can be modelled and automatically evaluated via an associated tool suite. Furthermore, an in-house developed analysis tool for system safety is used to carry out the safety assessment based on reliability block diagrams of the flight control architectures. To validate the proposed methodology, an existing, conventional hydraulic-powered flight control system of a single-aisle short-range aircraft is evaluated with respect to its design and safety margins.
Kreitz, Tobias, Bornholdt, Riko, Krings, Matthias, Henning, Karsten, Thielecke, Frank
The Increasing Use of Electrical Actuators in the Aerospace and Defense IndustryTBMG-226698/1/2015
Hydraulic and pneumatic systems have traditionally been the market leader in providing power in the aerospace and defense industry because of their low cost and high power density. But in recent years, attention has been focused on the limitations of hydraulic actuators, including their weight, performance, and high maintenance requirements, as well as concerns over their vulnerability due to security issues and other risks.
Aerospace Design and Installation of Commercial Transport Helicopter Hydraulic SystemsARP4925B (Current)10/9/2014
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) establishes the factors which should be considered in the design and installation of a commercial transport rotorcraft hydraulic system, including the applicable airworthiness regulations that affect the hydraulic system. This ARP also provides information and guidelines on the many factors that arise in the design process to provide cost effectiveness, reliability, maintainability and accepted design and installation practices.
A-6A1 Commercial Aircraft Committee
Optimization of the Power Allocation for Flight Control Systems2014-01-21889/16/2014
Due to a shift of the major aviation concerns to focus on enhancements of the successful programs instead of pushing their successors, the need for new methodologies for aircraft system architecture design emerges. Challenging the existing requirements and reconsidering the functions and their allocation could help to dissolve the system specific development paradigm and lead to beneficial architecture concepts. To help understand the mechanisms and boundary conditions of developing fault-tolerant systems, the first part of the paper gives an overview of the successive process of architecture design. The significant architectural design decisions and the concurrent safety assessment process are discussed. One crucial step in the design space exploration of future aircraft system architectures is the allocation of the consumers to the available power sources. Within the paper a methodology for the optimization of the power allocation for flight control systems is proposed. With this methodology the evaluation of a large amount of architecture permutations on the basis of a preliminary system safety assessment regarding multiple top failure events is possible in a short time period. Furthermore the impact of power allocation on the average operational availability of an aircraft is estimated. Therefore the architecture permutations are evaluated based on their reliability to comply with the master minimum equipment list after a given time. The proposed methodology has been implemented into the MATLAB based tool OPAL and validated on basis of the power allocation of the AIRBUS A320. Furthermore, within the paper a case study for the power allocation of a flight control system based on SAKURAI-flaps is presented to illustrate the application of the methodology and the tool OPAL.
Bornholdt, Riko, Thielecke, Frank
Energy Analysis of Electromechanical Actuator under Simulated Aircraft Primary Flight Control Surface Load2014-01-21829/16/2014
The purpose of this study is to set up a laboratory test apparatus to analyze aircraft flight control EMAS' electrical and thermal energy flow under transient and dynamic flight profiles. A hydraulic load frame was used to exert load to the EMA. The actuator was placed within an environmental chamber which simulates ambient temperature as function of altitude. The simulated movement or stroke was carried out by the EMA. The under test EMA's dynamic load, stroke, and ambient temperature were synchronized through a real time Labview DAQ system. Motor drive voltage, current, regenerative current, and motor drive and motor winding temperature were recorded for energy analysis. The EMA under test was subjected to both transient and holding load laid out in a test matrix. It was found that the transient missions of EMAS presented the most electric demand on the aircraft electric power supply system while holding presented the most severe thermal stress on the EMAS, where the EMAS operated at 0% efficiency and all the electric power converted to heat.
Racine, Evan, Lammers, Zachary, Barnett, Street, Murphy, John, Leland, Quinn
Thermal Management System Concept with an Autonomous Air-Cooled System2014-01-22139/16/2014
Electrical power management is a key technology in the AEA (All-Electric Aircraft) system, which manages the supply and demand of the electrical power in the entire aircraft system. However, the AEA system requires more than electrical power management alone. Adequate thermal management is also required, because the heat generated by aircraft systems and components increases with progressive system electrification, despite limited heat-sink capability in the aircraft. Since heat dissipation from power electronics such as electric motors, motor controllers and rectifiers, which are widely introduced into the AEA, becomes a key issue, an efficient cooling system architecture should be considered along with the AEA system concept. The more-electric architecture for the aircraft has been developed; mainly targeting reduced fuel burn and CO2 emissions from the aircraft, as well as leveraging ease of maintenance with electric/electronic components. The AEA should pursue more efficient and eco-friendlier systems, which are easier to maintain than those of conventional aircraft/MEA (More-Electric Aircraft), to enhance benefits for passengers and operators. Given the crucial role of thermal management to construct the AEA, in this paper the authors discuss the AEA thermal management concept, which comprises the three key technologies relating to sub-systems in thermal management; energy-saving for the ECS (Environmental Control System) by introducing a VCS (Vapor Cycle System), replacing a liquid-cooling system for large power electronics with forced-air cooling, and increasing the fuel heat-sink capability by the MEE (More-Electric Engine) electric-fuel system, which limits rise in fuel temperature.
Morioka, Noriko, Saito, Hidefumi, Takahashi, Norio, Seta, Manabu, Oyori, Hitoshi
Long-Term Storage of Missile Hydraulic SystemsAIR974B (Current)10/4/2013
Much of the available long-term storage test data has been reviewed and topically separated to enable the independent discussion of storage effects on fluids, seals, hydraulic components, and hydraulic systems. Comments are made in Section 4 concerning the applicability of the test results and regarding design practices for storability. Conclusions are drawn in Section 5 regarding inactive storage of hydraulic systems for at least a 7 year period.
A-6A2 Military Aircraft Committee
Integrated Reconfigurable Aero-Propulsion (IRAP) Control for Improved Fault Tolerance2013-01-22559/17/2013
In this paper we present results of a study of an integrated aero-propulsion flight control system. The resulting problem is that of controlling the system in which actuators operate on different time scales. This is a difficult problem since the control strategy needs to balance between not using the slow actuator at all, and slowing down the overall system to the time scale of the slow actuator. In the case of aero-propulsion control design for F/A-18 aircraft, the part of the control derivative matrix associated with engines is not full rank so not all states of interest can be simultaneously forced to track the commands. A control strategy that takes this constraint into account has been developed. The proposed IRAP approach is illustrated through simulation of F/A-18 aircraft dynamics under flight-critical control effector failures.
Boskovic, Jovan D., Jackson, Joseph, Mehra, Raman
A Methodology for Systems Integration in Aircraft Conceptual Design - Estimation of Required Space2013-01-22359/17/2013
This paper presents a methodology for conceptual aircraft design to evaluate the space available for systems (top-down approach) and to estimate the space required for critical components impacting the aircraft configuration (bottom-up approach). The presented top-down approach introduces the concept of “equivalent design volume”, including the space required for systems and the associated empty space to access, maintain and ventilate them. This approach enables an early feasibility check for aircraft configuration exploration regarding the integration and installation of systems, without having to detail the system architecture. In complement, the bottom-up approach introduces the estimation of the required dimensions for critical components. Here, the example of the flight control actuators integration in the wing tip is presented.
Liscouet-Hanke, Susan, Huynh, Kenny
Flight Control Fault Models Based on SEU Emulation2013-01-22469/17/2013
The increased use of FPGAs over the past decade has induced an increased concern about radiation effects, in particular the effects of single event upsets (SEU) in SRAM-based FPGAs. Technology scaling and density increase have caused FPGAs to be more vulnerable to SEU. Therefore, external radiations present an issue not only for space based systems; but also for critical terrestrial applications operating in harsh environment, such as commercial avionics. In order to build robust fault tolerant systems, SEU effects have to be analyzed and modeled so that the designer understands and considers the system's possible faulty behaviors. In this paper, we present a complete automated methodology, based on the use of SEU controller provided by Xilinx, to efficiently emulate SEUs on an FPGA design and extract possible fault models based on radiation effects. The proposed method is applied on a reconfigurable flight control system based on a reference adaptive control model. With the automatic aspect of the proposed methodology, it was possible to emulate a large number of SEUs with reduced time and effort. Experimental results present the design sensitivity, its failure rate as well as its faulty output behavior. Moreover, results analysis disclose the existence of new actuator control fault models that are not considered in fault tolerant systems, these systems being mainly based on the existing well-known models in the literature. The new fault models can be used by the designer at an earlier stage in the design to build robust flight control systems.
Hobeika, Christelle, Pichette, Simon, Ghodbane, Azeddine, Thibeault, Claude, Audet, Yves, Boland, Jean-François, Saad, Maarouf
Cold Gas Systems, Missile or Projectiles Design, Installation, Tests and Requirements ForARP1625B (Current)6/5/2013
Systems shall be classified in terms of type, category and class.
A-6A2 Military Aircraft Committee
Ship Systems and Equipment - Hydraulic Systems - Noise ControlJ1782_201305 (Current)5/31/2013
Hydraulic systems are used on marine vehicles for steering, vehicle control, and utility services. System components that generate and transmit noise are of concern. This SAE Information Report (a) addresses noise requirements which may apply to the hydraulic systems of ships and submersibles, and (b) identifies noise sources and techniques which may be used to reduce system noise. Noise of power sources (e.g., electric motors) and end items (e.g., steering linkages) is beyond the scope of this document.
Ship Fluid Systems Committee
Determination of Costs and Benefits from Implementing an Engine Health Management SystemARP4176 (Historical)2/5/2013
This ARP provides an insight into how to approach a cost benefit analysis (CBA) to determine the return on investment (ROI) that would result from implementing a propulsion Prognostics and Health Management (PHM) system on an air vehicle. It describes the complexity of features that can be considered in the analysis, the different tools and approaches for conducting a CBA and differentiates between military and commercial applications. This document is intended to help those who might not necessarily have a deep technical understanding or familiarity with PHM systems but want to either quantify or understand the economic benefits (i.e., the value proposition) that a PHM system could provide.
E-32 Aerospace Propulsion Systems Health Management
8000 psi Hydraulic Systems: Experience and Test ResultsAIR4002A (Current)11/15/2012
Shortly after World War II, as aircraft became more sophisticated and power-assist, flight-control functions became a requirement, hydraulic system operating pressures rose from the 1000 psi level to the 3000 psi level found on most aircraft today. Since then, 4000 psi systems have been developed for the U.S. Air Force XB-70 and B-1 bombers and a number of European aircraft including the tornado multirole combat aircraft and the Concorde supersonic transport. The V-22 Osprey incorporates a 5000 psi hydraulic system. The power levels of military aircraft hydraulic systems have continued to rise. This is primarily due to higher aerodynamic loading, combined with the increased hydraulic functions and operations of each new aircraft. At the same time, aircraft structures and wings have been getting smaller and thinner as mission requirements expand. Thus, internal physical space available for plumbing and components continues to decrease.
A-6A2 Military Aircraft Committee
Electrical Energy Storage for Energy Optimized Aircraft2012-01-222610/22/2012
Given the goal of developing energy-optimized aircraft that employ increasingly higher power loads such as electric flight control actuation, directed energy weapon systems and on-demand cooling systems, advances in battery technology and associated integration methodology will be required to achieve a robust electrical power system design. Batteries based on various Lithium-Ion chemistry technologies represent a 50% improvement in both specific energy and specific power over legacy NiCad and Lead-Acid chemistries. However, along with these benefits come challenges in terms of overall safety, cost and availability. Safety considerations primarily include failure modes that result from the battery being subjected to short-circuit conditions and over-charge conditions. Cost and availability challenges arise primarily from one-off point designs and ensuing low production volumes, but also stem from limited marketplace competition. With respect to safety, recent developments in various subsets of Li-Ion chemistry including iron-phosphate cells indicate potential improvements in short-circuit and over-voltage performance. These cells should be extensively tested in effort to verify those claims as well to characterize their performance in general. External to the battery, EPS architectures should employ robust fault coordination and the use of external switches driven by electronics for both short-circuits and over-charge protection. To address cost and availability, as well as safety, it is recommended that air-framers leverage the electric vehicle industry in its pursuit of safe, low-cost batteries. The automotive industry represents greater volume than the aircraft industry as well as broadens the potential supplier base. Further, it is recommended that the air-framers investigate and possess experience in numerous vehicle-battery integration methods and technologies including the unique requirements of more-electric aircraft and DEW systems. Some programs have indeed demonstrated success in floating Lithium-Ion batteries on the bus under more-electric transient as well as emergency operation conditions. Integrating a battery that supports a weapon requires a clear understanding of the expected operation of that weapon including duty cycle and depth of magazine, both of which critically affect discharge and recharge rates of the battery and ultimately it safe operation. This paper addresses in detail various approaches to mitigating the aforementioned challenges of safety, affordability and availability.
Knowles, Jeff
Autonomous Electrical Power System for Multi Role Transport Tanker Aircraft2012-01-219210/22/2012
Today's civil airliners integrate electrical power capability properly sized to supply the growing demands of modern aircraft systems, that are more electrical than ever. The conversion of civil aircraft into a military derivative aircraft faces the challenge of rearranging the available generation capability to feed the new power-hungry military systems while at the same time minimizing the impact on certification of the base aircraft for use on civil operations. This challenge is particularly difficult when the new military systems demand high peak power consumption, as in the case of the conversion of a civil airliner into a military Multi-Role Transport Tanker aircraft with high performance multipoint refueling capabilities. In fact the selection of the type of actuation (either electrical or hydraulic) for the refueling systems is heavily conditioned by the excess of either electrical or hydraulic power available in the base aircraft. The A330MRTT Multirole Transport Tanker from Airbus Military uses electromechanical actuation for all the refueling actuation systems, including underwing Pods, Fuselage Refueling Unit and Boom actuation and control systems. This paper proposes a new autonomous electrical system for supplying the Air to Air Military refueling systems (underwing pods, fuselage refueling unit and boom system) with no power demand to the base aircraft electrical system. Furthermore, this proposed architecture could even provide additional power to the base aircraft in case of emergency operation when the military refueling systems are not operated. The new proposed architecture integrates power generation capability within the installed refueling systems, energy conversion to the proper distribution level, energy recovery from the refueling systems, energy storage into a battery system and energy distribution to internal military consumers. The power generation capability of the Air to Air Refueling (AAR) autonomous electrical system covers the average power demand of all simultaneous consumers, while the storage capability is able to supplement the high power peak demands of the consumers and is also able to recover for future use most of the energy generated by the AAR systems during certain operating conditions.
Fernandez-Garcia, F.Javier, Valdeolmos, Javier
Energy Optimized Aircraft: What is it and how do we make one?2012-01-217910/22/2012
Efforts are underway to develop technologies to create a more Energy Optimized Aircraft (EOA). The question becomes how should one define an Energy Optimized Aircraft and how should energy optimization be measured to determine what is optimal? This paper provides a top level point of view for the goal of an Energy Optimized Aircraft. It outlines how one should approach the design of such an aircraft, the relevant vehicle systems technologies to enable energy optimization for fighter aircraft, and potential aircraft level measurands for determining degrees of goodness associated with incorporating different technologies. The top-to-bottom approach is provided for traceability of technologies being developed to aircraft and mission level goals.
Griggs, Steven C., Iden, Steven Mark, Lamm, Peter T.
Fault Detection and Isolation for Electro-Mechanical Actuators Using a Data-Driven Bayesian Classification2012-01-221510/22/2012
This research investigates a novel data-driven approach to condition monitoring of Electrical-Mechanical Actuators (EMAs) consisting of feature extraction and fault classification. The approach is designed to accommodate varying loads and speeds since EMAs typically operate under non-steady conditions. Since many common faults in rotating machinery produce unique frequency components, the approach is based on signal analysis in the frequency domain of both inherent EMA signals and accelerometers. The feature extraction process exposes fault frequencies in the signal data that are synchronous with motor position through a series of signal processing techniques consisting of digital re-sampling to the position domain, Power Spectral Density (PSD) computation to the frequency domain, and feature reduction. The reduced dimension feature is then used to determine the condition of the EMA with a trained Bayesian Classifier. Signal data collected from EMAs in known health configurations is used to train the algorithms so that the condition of EMAs with unknown health may be predicted. A passive, linear load test fixture is used to provide a known load (2,400-lbf) on a MOOG industrial MaxForce EMA used for the testing. A seeded fault testing methodology is used to induce known faults in the ball screw and then used as training and validation data for the proposed work. Various desired driving commands are utilized to simulate “real-world” conditions. Laboratory results show that EMA condition can be determined over multiple operating conditions. Although the process was developed for EMAs, it can be used generically on other rotating machine applications as a Health and Usage Management System (HUMS) tool.
Chirico, Anthony, Kolodziej, Jason R.
Aerospace Hydraulics and Actuation Lessons LearnedAIR4543/1 (Historical)12/12/2011
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) contains Lessons Learned from aerospace actuation, control and fluid power systems technologies. The lessons were prepared by engineers from the aerospace industry and government services as part of the work of SAE Committee A-6, Aerospace Actuation, Control and Fluid Power Systems. Each lesson was presented to the appropriate A-6 technical panel. The technical topics are organized into five sections covering systems, actuation, hydraulic components, electrical components and miscellaneous, each further divided into subsections. The information topics are presented in a concise format of Problem, Issue, Solution and Lesson Learned, often with accompanying descriptive diagrams and illustrations for clarity and understanding.
A-6 Aerospace Actuation, Control and Fluid Power Systems
Airbus - EMAs for Flight Controls Actuation System - An Important Step Achieved in 20112011-01-273210/18/2011
A significant step is achieved on the flight control actuation system toward the more electrical aircraft through the Airbus A380, A400M and the A350 development phase ongoing. The A380/A400M/A350 features a mixed flight control actuation power source distribution, associating electrically powered actuators with conventional FlyByWire hydraulic servocontrols. In the scope of the preparation of the future Airbus Aircraft, this paper presents the perspectives of the use of the EMA technologies for the flight control systems in the more electrical aircraft highlighting the main technical challenges need to treat: jamming susceptibility, “on board” maintenance reduction, Operational reliability increase, power electronics and power management optimization, and regarding the environmental constraints, the predicted performances; the benefits associated to the optimized utilization of on-board power sources. On the 4th of January 2011, an aileron EMA was successful flown on Airbus A320 MSN1. It is an important step towards the EMA technology for flight control actuation system.
Todeschi, Michel
Challenges for Health Monitoring of Electromechanical Flight Control Actuation Systems2011-01-270110/18/2011
Flight control systems of civil aircraft have undergone huge developments in the last decades. The current more/ all electric aircraft concepts lead to the replacement of the hydraulic actuators in the primary flight control systems by electromechanical systems. Integrating electromechanical systems in safety critical applications implies three main challenges: (a) the detection of all fault cases which could lead to a safety critical state, (b) finding measurement parameters capable to detect faults, and (c) the development of algorithms to detect faults under all flight conditions. Putting the scope on the health monitoring of the mechanical components of a direct drive actuator, a new technology based on piezoresistive thin film sensors (TFS) is presented and its potential shown by using defective ball bearings as an example.
Wagner, Hannes, Nikolov, Galin, Bierig, Andreas, Spangenberg, Holger
Improving Peak Power Capability of an Aircraft2010-01-178011/2/2010
This paper introduces several new concepts for improving the peak electrical power capability of an aircraft. This capability is becoming very important for the development of future electric power systems and is reflected in the Honeywell more electric architecture (MEA) design concept and energy optimized aircraft (EOA) initiative. There are many system benefits of using electrically driven actuators on aircraft rather than those that are hydraulically driven. These benefits include enhanced reliability, lower weight, lower volume, and lower cost. However, the introduction of electromechanical actuation (EMA) and electro-hydrostatic actuation (EHA) into aircraft systems has increased the needs for peak electrical power demand. This paper discusses the concept of aircraft electric power systems in which peak power is increased based on aircraft utilization of existing power sources rather than on an increased power rating of existing components or the addition of new components or systems. This paper also discusses enhancement of load regeneration capability, along with some failure modes and related fault-mitigation provisions. To verify the feasibility of potential systems, a series of computer simulation programs has been developed for different operating conditions. For that reason, simulation results are presented and analyzed. Although implementation of the concept is possible both for alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc) distribution busses, this paper concentrate primarily on dc buses. Examples of existing aircraft electrical power systems that are promising candidates for this approach are shown. Finally, the advantages of these novel system concepts are summarized and conclusions presented.
Ganev, Evgeni D., Sarlioglu, Bulent
Integrated Electrical and Thermal Management Sub-system Optimization2010-01-181211/2/2010
Air vehicle subsystems are moving towards more electric actuation and more electric architectures. This has resulted in transient electrical power demands that require high fidelity simulations to accurately predict the peak system electrical loads. In addition, the high power electronics necessary to drive more electric system devices are generating additional heat loads, resulting in increasing demands on thermal management system performance. Consequently, integrated system simulations and the capability to optimize integrated electrical / thermal management systems are becoming necessary at earlier stages in the design cycle. LM Aeronautics has developed a MATLAB / Simulink / SimPowerSystems based toolbox for rapid modeling of thermal and electrical subsystems. Use of this toolbox for simulating and optimizing an integrated thermal / electrical subsystem is demonstrated.
Bodden, David, Eller, Bob, Clements, Scott
DOCUMENT FOR 270 VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT (270 V DC) SYSTEMARP4729 (Historical)7/6/2010
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) provides technical design and application information related to the generation, distribution, control, and utilization of aircraft 270 V DC electrical power systems and support equipment. This document also provides references and definitions to permit comparisons of various electrical systems and components.
AE-7C Systems
Improving Load Regeneration Capability of an Aircraft2009-01-318911/10/2009
This paper presents new concepts for improving management of the electrical load power regeneration of an aircraft. A novel electrical system that allows for load regeneration back to the distribution bus is described. This approach offers the benefits of reduced weight, volume, and cost, as well as improved reliability. Also described is an electrical machine control mechanism that creates motor power to run the prime mover (i.e., the main engine to dissipate the regenerated power). Instead of main engine generation, this approach can be applied to an auxiliary power unit (APU) or power and thermal management system (PTMS). Background information regarding the regeneration concept is presented. The concept definition and the various modes of operation of the improved system are analyzed and described in detail. Results from the dynamic simulation of the system model are included. Due to the repetitive transitions, special attention is given to the high frequency mechanical stress of the electric machine and its coupling with the engine. Finally, the conclusions are presented and the advantages of these concepts are summarized.
Ganev, Evgeni, Sarlioglu, Bulent
Equipment Condition Monitoring and Prognostic Methods for Single Variable Systems2009-01-316411/10/2009
This paper introduces empirical modeling techniques for process and equipment monitoring, fault detection and diagnostics, and prognostics. The paper first provides a brief background and an overview of the theoretical foundations and presents a new method for applying these methods to systems which only have one useful measured variable. A case study is then presented for the application of the method to an aircraft generator that includes 1. Normal feature prediction over different operating conditions 2. Actual feature measurement and residual generation 3. Fault detection, identification, and quantification Application of the proposed single variable monitoring system to the simulated aircraft generator data resulted in fault diagnosis accuracy of 96.3%, only one misdiagnosed case in 27, for the types and severities of faults considered. Future work in developing a prognostic model for a single-variable system will be outlined.
Hines, J. Wesley, Coble, Jamie, Bailey, B. Keith
Electrically Driven General Systems for UAVsTBMG-582610/1/2009
General systems are defined as all of the flight safety critical systems of an aircraft, excluding the engine and flight control computing. Usually, the main subsystems in a general system include the electrical power generation and distribution system, the primary and secondary flight control actuation system, the hydraulic system, the environmental control system, the fuel system, and the landing gear and brake system.
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