Browse Topic: High voltage systems

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Aircraft Electrical Voltage Level DefinitionsAIR7502A (Current)12/9/2025
The scope of this report will document the various voltage levels and provide a rational for each level as discussed and agreed to in the AE-7 committee.
AE-7C Systems
Arc Damage Assessment of Arc Plume and Physical DamageAIR6982 (Current)11/26/2025
Describes the relative measurement of assessing the damage zone of arc plasma to determine appropriate separation/segregation requirements between a wire harness and nearby components
AE-8A Elec Wiring and Fiber Optic Interconnect Sys Install
Multirotor UAS Wind Disturbances Rejection Using Dedicated Lateral Thrusters with Frequency-Split ControlF-0081-2025-01435/20/2025
Precision flight in windy conditions is a common challenge for multirotor UAS. It is especially challenging for in contact tasks that require high-precision positioning and good disturbance rejection capabilities. Such tasks include landing on high-voltage powerlines for in-contact inspections. This paper presents the implementation of small lateral thrusters to improve the lateral position hold ability of a large power line inspection UAS in windy conditions. Arranged in antagonistic pairs on each side, the lateral thrusters handle the high-frequency but smaller-amplitude wind turbulence components with a frequency split control. Using an identified model of the UAS flight dynamics alongside flight data in high-wind conditions, a control architecture with a frequency split in the lateral axis was optimized to increase the disturbance rejection. Experimental tests showed a 67% reduction in lateral position error with the proposed approach in high-wind conditions.
Leclerc, Marc-Antoine, Rancourt, David, Lussier Desbiens, Alexis
test 09/29/2022 2:00 pmSAE-PP-077339/29/2022
test 09/29/2022 2:00 pm
Dongari, Madhukar
Assembly and Soldering Criteria for High Quality/High Reliability Soldering Wire and Cable Termination in Aerospace VehiclesAS4461D (Current)7/23/2021
This standard is applicable to manual soldering and machine soldering processes utilizing controlled soldering devices, for electrical connections for wiring and cabling used in aerospace vehicles. Description of a component or device herein is not to be construed as authorizing the use of the component or device.
AE-8A Elec Wiring and Fiber Optic Interconnect Sys Install
Unshielded High Voltage Primary CableJ1654_202107 (Current)7/15/2021
This SAE Standard covers unshielded cable, 22 gauge and larger, intended for use at a nominal system voltage up to 600 V or 1000 V (ACrms or DC). It is intended for use in surface vehicle electrical systems.
Cable Standards Committee
Aircraft Electrical Voltage Level DefinitionsAIR7502 (Historical)1/27/2021
The scope of this report will document the various voltage levels and provide a rational for each level as discussed and agreed to in the AE-7 committee.
AE-7C Systems
Cable Marking for Circuit Identification in Multi-Voltage Power Distribution SystemsJ3176_202101 (Current)1/13/2021
This SAE Standard establishes the minimum circuit identification and requirements for Multi-Voltage Power Distribution Systems (MVPDS) for use on trucks and buses. A Multi-Voltage Power Distribution System is one that distributes two or three voltages, up to 60 VDC, to power the controls, instruments, and devices.
Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee
Vehicle Design Considerations Enabling High-Performance Charging2020-01-14404/14/2020
Customer requirements such as range anxiety and charging time are the driver for increasing the charging power of battery-electric vehicles (BEV). High-performance charging (HPC) theoretically enables time targets of faster than 30 kilometers (19 miles) recharging per minute. Due to physical limitations (i.e., current limits of the components) a charging power of more than 200 kilowatt arises the question of the voltage level required to fulfill the power demand. One possible approach to achieve a high charging power is increasing the battery voltage, i.e., increase the voltage level from 400 V to 800 V. This publication discusses the main aspects of charging by incorporating all high-voltage components in the vehicle. An increase of the voltage level and charging power affect all high-voltage components. The thermal management of the battery has to be considered. High-voltage vehicle architecture design considerations are discussed including thermal-management and battery-design aspects. Different charging characteristics from electric vehicles (EVs) available, are compared with an estimated fast charging profile which is based on theoretical background of available cells including consideration of physical and chemical limits (e.g., thermal-limits, cell-degradation). Additionally, higher-performance charging (HPC) also require consideration of the public charging infrastructure. Extending the technical point of view with customer values, the charging efficiency is considered including the infrastructure. Furthermore, customer acceptance and market forecasts are considered. Higher voltage levels enable higher power also for other components in the vehicle, such as the electric drives, high-voltage heaters, compressors and voltage converters. To determine the optimum voltage level, for a reference vehicle used in this paper, all those considerations are compared in the discussion. Focusing on the early development phase of a complete vehicle, criteria for conceptual design considerations are discussed incorporating the high-voltage vehicle architecture and the battery from the thermal point of view.
Paar, Christian Josef, Waser, Helmut Martin, Kreimaier, Heimo, Cuenca-Jaen, Inés, Eibler, Florian
Design of a Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle with CAVs Capability for the MaaS Market2020-01-14374/14/2020
There is significant potential for connected and autonomous vehicles to impact vehicle efficiency, fuel economy, and emissions, especially for hybrid-electric vehicles. These improvements could have large-scale impact on oil consumption and air-quality if deployed in large Mobility-as-a-Service or ride-sharing fleets. As part of the US Department of Energy's current Advanced Vehicle Technology Competition (AVCT), EcoCAR: The Mobility Challenge, Mississippi State University’s EcoCAR Team is redesigning and doing the development work necessary to convert a conventional gasoline spark-ignited 2019 Chevy Blazer into a hybrid-electric vehicle with SAE Level 2 autonomy. The target consumer segments for this effort are the Mobility-as-a-Service fleet owners, operators and riders. To accomplish this conversion, the MSU team is implementing a P4 mild hybridization strategy that is expected to result in a 30% increase in fuel economy over the stock Blazer. MATLAB models of the vehicle system shows the potential for additional improvement with the use of connected and autonomous features in the vehicle. This paper presents the design rationale for selection of the P4 strategy, vehicle modeling, and fuel economy simulation results completed during Year 1 of the competition. A detailed discussion of further improvements arising from incorporating connected and autonomous technology strategies, focusing on longitudinal control methods is also presented.
Taoudi, Amine, Haque, Moinul Shahidul, Strzelec, Andrea, Follett, Randolph
GM underway with plan to build U.S. electric-vehicle charging infrastructure19AUTP09_109/1/2019
Tesla has its coveted Supercharger network of high-voltage fast chargers, but despite a widely-discussed goal of contributing to a future with zero vehicle emissions, Mike Abelson, General Motors' vice president of EV infrastructure, admitted at the 2019 CAR Management Briefing Seminars conference that his company doesn't “wish to spend our capital to build (DC) fast chargers-we wish to spend our capital to build more electric vehicles.” Abelson said an extensive and robust public EV charging network-one presumably populated mostly with high-voltage, direct-current fast chargers-is “the key to convince people the EV really can be their primary vehicle.” The company's VP of EV infrastructure (a relatively new position at GM, incidentally) said the nation still doesn't have nearly enough so-called “enroute” charging, citing the conference's northern-Michigan locale as an example. Abelson showed a map of the state's uppermost region that indicated not a single DC fast-charger to accommodate the company's Chevy Bolt, the only EV currently sold by GM.
Visnic, Bill
Automotive Engineering: June 201919AUTP066/6/2019
Rethinking aluminum for NVH abatement Engineers, abandon those mastics! New "quiet" materials solutions are at hand. Paradigm shift in NVH A new wave of vehicle technologies is changing the way Brüel & Kjaer attacks noise, vibration and harshness. How a Tier 2 tackles NVH Saint-Gobain invested in anechoic testing so small components can make a big NVH difference. Reducing NVH through refined powertrain measurement The C1000 vastly simplifies measuring the mass matrix of heavy, odd shaped engines and powertrains. Foam for NVH solutions New innovations for a wide variety of sound-deadening applications. Long time coming: 2020 Corvette After six decades of teasing enthusiasts with intriguing concepts, Chevrolet is launching an all-new Corvette with its engine located where Zora intended-behind the driver. Protecting high-voltage circuits Yazaki readies a new solution for arc suppression in circuits of 48V or more. Editorial The unforgettable pyramid on the hood Supplier Eye Enter the dragon ICE researchers: 50% gasoline-engine efficiency in sight EMBATT looks to double the driving range of EVs Ford amped for new phase of hybrid-electric offensive As automotive climates shift, GKN ramps up its winter testing Mazda finally ready with Skyactiv-D for U.S. 2020 Escape: Ford's first crossover on new global FWD architecture New design for 2020 Mitsubishi Outlander Sport as brand awaits alliance's new platforms, products
Protecting high-voltage circuits19AUTP06_076/1/2019
Yazaki readies a new solution for arc suppression in circuits of 48V or more. As OEMs develop their next-generation electrical architectures aimed at new hybrid, EV and autonomous vehicles, engineers are focused on delivering systems that are even more robust and “fail-safe” than those used today. Handling more power safely is a given, experts say, as more power-gobbling heated seats, electric turbos, active suspensions, lidars, on-board data processors and other safety sensors are added. “The industry is now undergoing a fundamental change in how much electrical power is being used,” observed Eric Varton, chief engineer of advance development for Yazaki North America Core Engineering. He noted that the typical 12V vehicle architecture launched in the early 1960s is only capable of deliveing around 2 kW power. In an autonomous vehicle, the autonomous Drive module alone could consume 2 kW.
Brooke, Lindsay
Vehicle E/E Architecture and Its Adaptation to New Technical Trends2019-01-08624/2/2019
With the ever-increasing requirements on vehicle performance, as well as the trend of vehicle becoming an integral part of a much bigger ecosystem involving automated driving, intelligent transportation and smart city, more and more electrical/electronic (E/E) systems are integrated in vehicles. Vehicle E/E architecture being the fundamental organization of E/E components, the relationship among the components and with the environment, as well as the principles guiding the design and evolution, has essential influences on vehicle E/E system functions and performance. This paper gives the definition of vehicle E/E architecture and provides different views. The guidelines, contents and process of E/E architecture design are discussed. The evolution of E/E architecture, influence of the latest technical trends including electrification, automated driving, and connectivity functions on E/E architecture, and how vehicle E/E architecture adapts to the technical trends are studied.
Jiang, Shugang
Consideration of Corrosion Behavior of Aluminum Wire at Crimped Terminal and Effective Anti-Corrosion Treatment2019-01-04864/2/2019
The demand for weight reduction of vehicles is growing in compliance with CO2 emission control requirements. Also, demand for copper is on the rise with an increase in the number of electric vehicles because their motors and wiring require a lot of copper. This has raised concerns about higher copper prices and vehicle weight. Recently, attempts to reduce vehicle weight have been actively made by partially replacing copper with aluminum, which is lighter and less expensive. Although the use of aluminum wires on limited areas of some vehicles has already been reported, that on all areas has not been reported yet. The authors focus on reducing weight of wiring harnesses, which is about 20 kg per vehicle, and consider using aluminum instead of copper as the conductor of the electrical wires. One of the factors impeding the use of aluminum wires in wider areas is galvanic corrosion occurring at crimped terminals. Since aluminum causes galvanic corrosion when the metal is in electrical contact with a different metal in an electrolyte, it is essential to prevent this phenomenon from occurring at crimped terminals in mounting aluminum wires on vehicles. An anti-corrosion treatment needs to effectively prevent the occurrence of corrosion at the locations where aluminum wires are used. To devise an appropriate anti-corrosion treatment, it is necessary to grasp how aluminum wires corrode at the crimped terminals. This paper describes findings from a study of corrosion behavior of aluminum wires at crimped terminals for the purpose of developing an effective anti-corrosion treatment to increase the area onto which aluminum wires can be used.
Kawaguchi, Takuya, Fukaura, Keiji, Nakamura, Yuki, Mochizuki, Makoto, Otani, Satoshi
X-Ray Study of Low-Density MaterialsTBMG-339033/1/2019
It's hard to get an X-ray image of low-density material like tissue between bones because X-rays just pass right through like sunlight through a window. Sandia studies myriads of low-density materials, from laminate layers in airplane wings to foams and epoxies that cushion parts. So they borrowed and refined a technique from the medical field, X-ray phase contrast imaging, to look inside the softer side of things. The technique measures not just the number of X-ray photons that get through the sample, as in conventional X-ray imaging, but also the phase of the X-rays after they pass through, offering a complete look at interfaces inside a structure.
High-Voltage Power Line Multi-Sensor SystemTBMG-336942/1/2019
Government infrastructure facilities such as water treatment facilities, power plants, laboratories, and the like may be targets for terrorist attacks. Similarly, oil pipelines, power grids, warehouses, factories, laboratories, and the like in the commercial sector may be targeted by terrorists or persons engaging in industrial espionage and sabotage. When these facilities are remotely located, the limited or nonexistent power sources in the area may prevent or severely restrict the employment of cameras, sensors, and other intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) devices. Thus, there is a need to overcome these limitations while providing around-the-clock persistent support and similar capabilities.
Manufacturing Technique Helps Inkjet Printers Deliver Ink More EvenlyTBMG-337082/1/2019
When a coffee mug leaves a ring, the outer edges of that ring are darker than the inside of the ring. That's because the solute is separated from the liquid during the evaporation process — the coffee ring effect. This same effect can happen with printers. When printing a text document, the text itself consists of an outline of the letters and the inside of the letters. While it may not be visible to the untrained eye, the outlines are actually darker than the inside. This happens during the drying process, just like the coffee ring effect. Efforts have been made to find a way to remove this difference in pigmentation.
Definitions of Test Conditions for High Voltage Aerospace Systems Using the IAGOS Atmospheric Dataset2018-01-193110/30/2018
Aerospace electrical systems are continuing to increase their voltage levels to meet the on-board power demands of more-electric aircraft (MEA) where hydraulic and pneumatic systems are replaced with electrical equivalents. This trend will only continue as hybrid and all- electric aircraft are developed. These higher power demands require the use of higher voltages and as such it is essential to explore the behaviour of the insulation system in the aerospace environment. This insulation must operate in an environment where the operating temperatures range from 250°C to -65°C, the air pressure is around one tenth of that at ground level and where the levels of humidity and ozone vary rapidly. Understanding the impact of these variables on aircraft high voltage insulation systems is crucial in predicting their behaviour and lifetime. Our work with the IAGOS atmospheric dataset presents worst-case and typical flight environments for higher than expected cruising altitudes, and uses the findings to compare the relative rates of degradation of insulating materials at ground and cruising altitudes.
Haghighi, Hasti, Cotton, Ian, Gardner, Richard, Sauvage, Bastien
SAE Truck & Off-Highway Engineering: October 201818TOFHP1010/1/2018
Are higher voltage architectures imminent? As the limitations of current 12V architectures become more apparent, the commercial vehicle industry could be on the verge of adopting 48V. The only question is, will improvements in other technologies offer something better? Sensing changes in autonomous trucks Requirements for sensors and controls for commercial vehicles differ significantly from those used for cars. Many paths lead to reduced emissions A wide range of ICE technologies are needed to meet increasingly stringent emissions regulations. Quotes from COMVEC 2018 Industry leaders spoke extensively about all things autonomous-ADAS, big data, connectivity, cybersecurity, machine learning-at the annual SAE event. Here's some of what they had to say. Fuel-cell Class 8-take 2.0 With a longer-range and more-refined fuel cell-powered heavy-duty truck, Toyota aims to eventually eliminate emissions from trucks serving increasingly congested California ports. Editorial Bring innovation, disruption in-house Adding 3D printing to design, manufacturing processes Upstream devoted to truck cybersecurity threats Jacobs employs cylinder deactivation in HD engines to lower CO2, NOx Emissions reductions continue to disrupt CV industry Mercedes doubles down on electric vans and buses, considers fuel cells Off-road bus from Torsus transports to hard-to-reach places Q&A Perkins pursues plug-and-play connectivity
An Integrated Methodology for 0D Map-Based Powertrain Modelling Applied to a 48 V Mild-Hybrid Diesel Passenger Car2018-01-16599/10/2018
Nowadays, the 48 V vehicle architecture seems to be the perfect bridge between the 12 V system and the costly High Voltage (HV) electrification towards the crucial goal of CO2 and pollutants emissions reduction in combination with enhanced performance. However, this approach leads to an increased complexity in the interaction between different sub-systems targeting the optimization of the Energy Management System (EMS). Therefore, it becomes essential to perform a preliminary hardware assessment, exploring the interactions between the different components and quantifying the cost vs benefit trade-off. To this purpose, an integrated experimental/numerical methodology has been adopted: a comprehensive map-based Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) model has been built, allowing the simulation of a variety of hybrid architectures, including both HV and 48 V systems. It comprises an embedded EMS model, calibrated by means of dedicated test campaigns carried out on benchmarking vehicles, under both steady-state and transient conditions. Furthermore, the main electrical subsystems have been characterized during the same experimental campaigns with a minimum and non-invasive instrumentation effort. Specifically, this activity investigates the features and performance of a 48 V mild-hybrid Diesel P0 architecture. The aim of this activity is to achieve an accurate determination of the energy and fuel consumption, as well as of the CO2 emissions, over standard driving cycles, by means of a 0D model calibrated with a dedicated test campaign. The obtained results indicate that the developed 0D model can be used to predict the powertrain behavior for different vehicle mission profiles such as extended Real Driving Emissions (RDE) tests. Furthermore, it enables the possibility to assess, on a virtual test rig, the impact of modifications of the components specifications in order to evaluate alternative and feasible designs that can fit customer needs.
DiPierro, Giuseppe, Millo, Federico, Scassa, Mauro, Perazzo, Alessandro
Application of Models of Short Circuits and Blow-Outs of Spark Channels under High-Velocity Flow Conditions to Spark Ignition Simulation2018-01-17279/10/2018
This report describes the implementation of the spark channel short circuit and blow-out submodels, which were described in the previous report, into a spark ignition model. The spark channel which is modeled by a particle series is elongated by moving individual spark particles along local gas flows. The equation of the spark channel resistance developed by Kim et al. is modified in order to describe the behavior of the current and the voltage in high flow velocity conditions and implemented into the electrical circuit model of the electrical inductive system of the spark plug. Input parameters of the circuit model are the following: initial discharge energy, inductance, internal resistance and capacitance of the spark plug, and the spark channel length obtained by the spark channel model. The instantaneous discharge current and the voltage are obtained as outputs of the circuit model. When two arbitrary spark particles of the spark channel get close, the short circuit occurs if the electric potential differences between the two locations exceed a certain threshold voltage, which is raised with increasing distance between the two particles and decreasing discharge current. When the current falls below a lower limit current for maintenance of discharge, the spark blow-out occurs. A new spark channel is formed if the secondary circuit has the remaining energy which can break the electrical insulation between electrodes. Each line element of the spark channel particles heats and ignites the surrounding mixture gas. The turbulent flame speed and extinction are considered in the flame kernel behavior. The behavior of the spark channel, the current and voltage of the secondary circuit, and the ignition limit due to in-creases in the EGR rate were consistent with data measured from the spark ignition process in a combustion chamber.
Masuda, Ryo, Sayama, Shogo, Fuyuto, Takayuki, Nagaoka, Makoto, Sugiura, Akimitsu, Noguchi, Yasushi
Direct-Current Detector for Emergency Responder SafetyTBMG-328639/1/2018
The Department of Energy's Oak Ridge National Laboratory has developed a direct-current detector technology to help emergency responders safely detect high voltages, which they have licensed to North Carolina-based Hotstick USA.
Designing a System to Obtain Electrodermal Activity for WearablesTBMG-328209/1/2018
In recent years, activity trackers and other wearable electronic devices have gained popularity due to users’ desire to monitor, measure, and track using various real-time features related to their fitness or health, including the number of steps they take, their heart rate, their heart rate variability (HRV), the users’ temperature, their activity and/or stress levels, etc.
Auxiliary Power Solutions for 1500 VDC Photovoltaic SystemsTBMG-325068/1/2018
Photovoltaic systems are continually evolving to improve their efficiency and financial viability. One trend is to move to larger strings of cells giving higher dc voltages to be converted to ac voltage for the grid. Cost savings result, but auxiliary power supplies for monitoring and control need to accept these higher voltages as inputs.
Model Prediction Based Boost Converter Control Method for HEV Applications2018-01-04524/3/2018
Boost converter is widely applied to hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). Typical control methods employ two proportional-integral (PI) regulators to fulfill DC bus voltage closed-loop control and inductor current closed-loop control, respectively. They have intrinsic performance limitations: 1) slow dynamic response of DC bus voltage regulation; 2) high overshoot voltage during transient state; 3) it is difficult to design four gains best fit all operational conditions. This paper proposes a model prediction based boost converter control method for HEV applications. The proposed control method employs model based instantaneous power prediction and dynamic optimization in real time by minimizing a defined cost function to overcome above issues. First of all, the issues of typical control methods are analyzed. Then, the proposed control method is presented in detail, followed by simulation verification and comparison with PI based control method. Simulation results show that the proposed control method provides much better performance to boost converter system than the PI-based control.
Ge, Baoming, Chen, Lihua, Zarei, Shahram
Design Requirements for Automotive Ethernet PoDL Compatible Connectors2018-01-07544/3/2018
Ethernet technology has a promising future in the automotive industry. Data rates ranging from 10Mbps to 10Gbps are being, or already have been, standardized. To reduce the amount of cabling, a technology known as Power over Data Line (PoDL) has been developed that enables the data and power to share the same pair of wires. This paper will discuss the connector requirements needed to ensure safe power transmission for these PoDL voltages, and demonstrate a design that meets these requirements.
DiBiaso, Eric A., Chalas, Guadalupe
Hydraulically Amplified ActuatorsTBMG-283442/1/2018
Soft robots are made from soft materials that react to applied voltage with a wide range of motions. Such soft robots contain tremendous potential for future applications, as they adapt to dynamic environments and are well-suited to closely interact with humans. The soft devices can perform a variety of tasks, including grasping delicate objects such as a raw egg, as well as lifting heavy objects.
Silicon Carbide High-Voltage SwitchTBMG-281801/1/2018
High-voltage wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductor devices like 15-kV silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFETs have attracted attention because of potential applications in high-voltage and high-frequency power converters. These devices, however, are not commercially available, and their high cost due to expensive material growth and fabrication may limit their widespread adoption in the future.
Quick Drop Battery System for Electric Passenger Cars2017-01-245310/8/2017
Quick drop battery system was the core components of the electric vehicles, the reliability and compatibility of quick drop battery system was directly related to the popularization and application of electric vehicles. In this article, a split type battery management system and a split type high voltage architecture was used to achieve better charging compatibility. Meanwhile the number of fast switching connector’s pin is reduced and the plug life was prolonged to more than 10000 times by using floating structure. For battery management system (BMS), the state of charge (SOC) estimation was based on dynamic voltage correction, and make estimation accuracy reach to less than 5%. Rotary slot limit and fast locking mechanism had been designed for the first time and the precision of battery system assembling could control within 3mm, hence the floating structure’s damage could be reduced and the mechanical life could be enhanced. The cumulative mileage of vehicles equipped with this battery system had been over 24 million km, while the longest single mileage was over120, 000 km. The reliability of the system and the switching time within 3 minutes had reached the leading domestic level.
Liu, Shuang, Pan, Lina, Jiang, Xin, Wang, Yujiao, Liu, Kun, Xia, Yang
EDITORIAL: EVs lack a robust charging grid17AUTP10_0410/1/2017
The flames lit up the sky when the electric-power substation in my town blew up one night last August. TV news had it covered: A transformer at the DTE Energy site had exploded, immediately knocking out power for over 4,000 homes and businesses. More than 9,000 residents dug out flashlights, lit candles and sweated the summer heat. The utility acted quickly, bringing in a convoy of five flatbed trailers-DTE Energy's mobile emergency units-each carrying a large diesel-electric generator rig. Humming away behind a makeshift fence and “DANGER: High Voltage” signs, the generator trailers formed the nucleus of a temporary grid while an army of helmeted technicians worked to get the juice flowing. Two days after the fire, the town's lights were back on and my beer was cold again. But as I write this seven weeks later, the emergency generators are still powering the town. And the utility still doesn't know for certain the cause of the explosion.
Brooke, Lindsay
Steady State Characterization of Arcing in 540 V dc Distribution Systems2017-01-20359/19/2017
As applications in aerospace, transportation and data centers are faced with increased electric power consumption, their dc operating voltages have increased to reduce cable weight and to improve efficiency. Electric arcs in these systems still cause dangerous fault conditions and have garnered more attention in recent years. Arcs can be classified as either low impedance or high impedance arcs and both can cause insulation damage and fires. Low impedance arcs release lots of energy when high voltage becomes nearly shorted to ground. High impedance arcs can occur when two current-carrying electrodes are separated, either by vibration of a loose connection or by cables snapping. The high impedance arc decreases load current due to a higher equivalent load impedance seen by the source. This complicates the differentiation of a high impedance arc fault from normal operation. The topics of high impedance arc generation; characterization and modeling; and detection have all been studied in the literature for system voltages below 300 V dc. This paper presents new findings in each topic for system voltages up to 540 V dc. Previous arc generation methods use either stepper motors or vibration tables for electrode separation. A spring-based arc generation method is proposed to better emulate a cable snapping. Based on the new experimental parameters, an improved empirical model of steady state arcing is presented and compared with previous models. The results attained here establish the basis for a future comprehensive study of high impedance arc characteristics for emerging applications in aerospace vehicles, transportation and more. Finally, wavelet and statistical detection methods are evaluated for this new data.
Bauer, Eric C., Niassati, Nima, Brothers, John, Troth, John, Hensal, Jeff, Wang, Jin, Schweickart, Daniel, Grosjean, Dennis
EMC Requirements: Pending Changes for the Fourth Edition of IEC 60601-1-2TBMG-274839/1/2017
Active Implants: How Gold Binds to Silicone RubberTBMG-273238/1/2017
Flexible electronic parts could significantly improve medical implants. However, electroconductive gold atoms usually hardly bind to silicones. Researchers from the University of Basel have now been able to modify short-chain silicones in a way, that they build strong bonds to gold atoms. The results have been published in the journal Advanced Electronic Materials.
Products of Tomorrow: July 2017TBMG-272217/1/2017
This column presents technologies that have applications in commercial areas, possibly creating the products of tomorrow. To learn more about each technology, see the contact information provided for that innovation.
Factors Influencing Liquid over Air Cooling of High Voltage Battery Packs in an Electrified Vehicle2017-01-11713/28/2017
Automotive vehicle manufactures are implementing electrification technologies in many vehicle line-ups to improve fuel economy and meet emission standards. As a part of electrification, High Voltage (HV) battery packs are integrated alongside internal combustion engines. Recent generation HV batteries allow extensive power usage, by allowing greater charge and discharge currents and broader State of Charge (SOC) ranges. Heat generated during the charge-discharge cycles must be managed effectively to maintain battery cell performance and life. This situation requires a cooling system with higher efficiency than earlier generation electrified powertrains. There are multiple thermal solutions for cooling HV battery packs including forced air, liquid, direct refrigerant, and passive cooling. The most common types of HV battery pack cooling, for production vehicles, are air cooled using cabin interior air and liquid cooled using powertrain cooling systems. This paper focuses on air and liquid cooling systems. Each cooling system supports HV battery pack heat rejection using different methods and components. Each method has advantages and limitations. When using the HV battery pack as an alternative power source, customer expectations regarding driving comfort with respect to cabin climate, cabin interior noise, driver and passengers’ leg room, and interior storage space plays a critical role in sizing and selecting the HV battery cooling system. This paper deliberates the factors influencing the selection of liquid cooling over air cooling for a given hybrid electric vehicle architecture.
Janarthanam, Sury, Burrows, Neil, Boddakayala, Bhaskara Rao
Thermoplastic Enclosure for a High Voltage Battery System2017-01-11903/28/2017
As electrified powertrains proliferate through original equipment manufacturer vehicle offerings, the focus on system cost and weight reduction intensifies. This paper describes the development and evaluation of a High Voltage (HV) battery system enclosure molded from High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) to deliver substantial cost and weight opportunities. While previous HV battery system enclosure alternatives to steel and aluminum focus on thermoset composites and glass filled polypropylene, this solution leverages select HDPE design techniques established for fuel tanks and applies them to an HV battery system. The result is a tough, energy absorbing structure, capable of hermetic sealing, which simplifies manufacturing by eliminating nearly all fasteners. The authors evaluate performance with respect to crashworthiness, fire resistance, electro-magnetic compatibility and other challenges; using comparative research, computer analysis, and physical testing to demonstrate the system capabilities. The result is a compelling argument for employing HDPE to enclose and protect a HV battery system, yielding cost and weight reduction opportunities over conventional solutions.
Maguire, Patrick, Baek, Hyung, Liptak, Stephen, Lomax, Olivia, Palma, Rodolfo, Zhang, Yi
Real Time Application of Battery State of Charge and State of Health Estimation2017-01-11993/28/2017
A high voltage battery is an essential part of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). It is imperative to precisely estimate the state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH) of battery in real time to maintain reliable vehicle operating conditions. This paper presents a method of estimating SOC and SOH through the incorporation of current integration, voltage translation, and Ah-throughput. SOC estimation utilizing current integration is inadequate due to the accumulation of errors over the period of usage. Thus voltage translation of SOC is applied to rectify current integration method which improves the accuracy of estimation. Voltage translation data is obtained by subjecting the battery to hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test. The Battery State of Health was determined by semi-empirical model combined with accumulated Ah-throughput method. Battery state of charge was employed as an input to estimate damages accumulated to battery aging through a real-time model. This method allows the user to monitor battery operating conditions instantaneously. The proposed method is implemented and verified by series of comprehensive hardware-in-loop (HIL) testing with high voltage HEV battery pack having a capacity of the 29Ah lithium-cobalt-oxide cell through multiple drive cycles. This technology was designed by Energy Storage Systems and Sustainability Lab at Michigan Technological University to be used in the hybrid electric vehicle based on a 1950 Chevy Truck developed at Michigan Technological University, Hybrid Electric Vehicle Enterprise.
Khan, Khalid, Zhou, Bin, Rezaei, Amir
Simulations of Spark-Plug Transient Plasma Breakdown in Automotive Internal Combustion Engines2017-01-05633/28/2017
The arc breakdown phase in automotive spark-plugs is a sub-microsecond event that precedes the main spark event. This phase is typically characterized by strong non-equilibrium plasma phenomena with high voltage and currents. The nature of the initial breakdown phase has strong implications for the successful spark formation and the electrode erosion/lifetime. There are evidently very few studies that seek to characterize this phase in detail. The goal of this work is to investigate this non-equilibrium plasma arc breakdown phase, using high-fidelity computational modeling. We perform studies using the VizGlow non-equilibrium plasma modeling tool. During the early breakdown phase, the plasma forms thin filamentary streamers that provide the initial conductive channel across the gap. Once the streamers bridge the gap, the plasma begins to transition to a thermal arc. The redistribution of electrostatic potential across the gap during the breakdown phase causes a large electric field intensification near the cathode. This leads to significant ion bombardment on the electrode surface and fast gas heating, both of which can be attributed to electrode erosion.
Karpatne, Anand, Breden, Douglas P., Raja, Laxminarayan
Reduction of Cranking Noise from High Voltage Starter for One-Motor Two-Clutch Hybrid Systems2017-01-11673/28/2017
In this paper, we propose a high voltage brushless AC starter that contributes to improved fuel efficiency and a reduction in the cost of the one-motor two-clutch hybrid system, which we call a 1MG2CL system. We have named it the HV starter, and it is composed of an AC motor, inverter and pinion with a shift mechanism. One of the issues with the 1MG2CL system is the high electrical energy when starting an ICE as it switches over from EV drive to HEV drive. While the ICE is starting, the main motor has to crank the ICE via the clutch; the clutch slips to absorb the main motor power, so the main motor has to output a high power to overcome the loss. Therefore, to contribute to reducing the electrical power by eliminating clutch slip losses, we developed an HV starter as a dedicated ICE starting device. Thanks to the reduction in electrical power, the HV starter is able to improve fuel efficiency and reduce system costs. However, the major issue is the cranking noise generated by the pinion mechanism of the starter. We have developed a noise control strategy to solve this issue. The concept is to reduce the dependency of the pinion operation on the starter. We aim to utilize the ICE inertia energy in the later cranking process instead of starter cranking. Using the HV starter, which is a high power and controllable AC motor, we have managed to control the cranking noise to the target level, which is equal to the road noise during EV driving.
Baba, Kousuke, Kubo, Yuuki, Yagi, Toyoji, Imura, Akihiro
HEV Battery Pack Thermal Management Design and Packaging Solutions2017-01-06223/28/2017
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) utilize a High Voltage (HV) battery pack to improve fuel economy by maximizing the capture of vehicle kinetic energy for reuse. Consequently, these HV battery packs experience frequent and rapid charge-discharge cycles. The heat generated during these cycles must be managed effectively to maintain battery cell performance and cell life. The HV battery pack cooling system must keep the HV battery pack temperature below a design target value and maintain a uniform temperature across all of the cells in the HV battery pack. Herein, the authors discuss some of the design points of the air cooled HV battery packs in Ford Motor Company’s current model C-Max and Fusion HEVs. In these vehicles, the flow of battery cooling air was required to not only provide effective cooling of the battery cells, but to simultaneously cool a direct current high voltage to low voltage (DC-DC) converter module. In addition to the fundamental heat transfer goals, the design team overcame package challenges on cooling air flow distribution to both cell arrays and DC-DC convertor and air rush concerns. This paper describes the work the team completed to successfully balance the design requirements.
Janarthanam, Sury, Paramasivam, Sarav, Maguire, Patrick, Gebbie, James, Hughes, Douglas
Self-Excited Wound-Field Synchronous Motors for xEV2017-01-12493/28/2017
Compact, high efficiency and high reliability are required for an xEV motor generator. IPM rotors with neodymium magnets are widely applied for xEV motors to achieve these requirements. However, neodymium magnet material has a big impact on motor cost and there is supply chain risk due to increased usage of these rare earth materials for future automotive xEV’s. On the other hand, a wound-field rotor does not need magnets and can achieve equivalent performance to an IPM rotor. However, brushes are required in order to supply current to the winding coil of the rotor. This may cause insulation issues on xEV motors which utilize high voltage and high currents. Therefore, it is suggested to develop a system which supplies electric energy to the rotor field winding coil from the stator without brushes by applying a transformer between stator coil and rotor field winding. Specifically, add auxiliary magnetic poles between each field winding pole and wind sub-coils to these poles. The magnetic flux generated from the stator induces a field current in the sub-coils. Rectifying the induced current by a diode enables applying direct current to the field windings of the rotor. This paper confirms the equivalent performance between an IPM rotor and wound-field rotor by FEM simulation.
Seguchi, Masahiro
Power Module Design Verification for xEV Application Under Extreme Conditions2017-01-12463/28/2017
Power modules play a key role in traction inverters for vehicle electrification applications. The harsh automotive operating environment is a big challenge for power modules. The paper highlights the challenges for power modules usage in electrified vehicles (xEVs), and proposes a design verification procedure for such application in order to ensure the reliable operation under all conditions. First, power modules operate in all climate zones and are exposed to a wide ambient temperature range underhood from -40°C to 105°C. A typical automotive power module should therefore withstand a junction temperature from -40°C to up to 175°C without exceeding its safe operating area (SOA), e.g. avalanche breakdown voltage, maximum current, and thermal limit. Second, an inductive induced high voltage spike could be generated during the power semiconductor fast switching at high voltage and high current conditions. The voltage clamping capability is usually required to prevent power semiconductor breakdown under such high voltage spike. Moreover, IGBT short circuit capability is desired to allow adequate time to trigger protection once a short circuit occurs in the motor windings or the inverter. The power module in xEV application is used as an example to show the proposed design verification process including 1) wide temperature range of operation, 2) voltage clamping capability, and 3) short circuit capability.
Xu, Fan, Chen, Lihua, Yang, Shuitao, Zhou, Yan, Alam, Mohammed Khorshed
Traction Inverter Design with a Direct Bypass to Boost Converter2017-01-12473/28/2017
Direct bypass to DC-DC boost converter in traction inverter increases converter's capability and efficiency significantly by providing a lower loss path for power flow between the battery and DC-link terminal. A bypass using diode is an excellent solution to achieve this capability at low cost and system complexity. Bypass diode operates in the linear operating region (DC Q-point) when the battery discharges through the bypass diode to drive the electric motors. Therefore, thermal stress on the DC-link capacitor is shared between the input and DC-link capacitors through the bypass diode. On the other hand, inverters introduce voltage oscillation in the DC-link terminal which results in unwanted energy oscillation through the bypass diode during battery charging. Both of these phenomena have been explained in details. It is possible to eliminate this power oscillation during battery charging using minimum voltage level boosting at a reduced frequency or using a bi-directional switch (i.e., IGBT/diode or MOSFET/diode pair). The control strategy to achieve minimum voltage level boosting has been described in details. Moreover, it is possible to further reduce power loss of the boost converter by completely bypassing the inductor using a bi-directional switch during high voltage battery charging.
Alam, Mohammed Khorshed, Chen, Lihua, Zhou, Yan, Xu, Fan, Yang, Shuitao
Effect of 48 V Mild Hybrid System Layout on Powertrain System Efficiency and Its Potential of Fuel Economy Improvement2017-01-11753/28/2017
Recovering as much braking energy as possible, and then fully reusing it, can significantly improve the vehicle powertrain efficiency, hence reducing the CO2 emissions and fuel consumption. A 48 V mild hybrid system recovers less braking kinetic energy than a HV (High Voltage) hybrid system due to the reduced peak power/current rating. However, the cost of the 48 V mild hybrid system is significantly less than the HV hybrid system which gives the 48 V mild hybrid system a much better cost-benefit ratio. The 48 V mild hybrid system can have several different system layouts (e- machines at different positions, or have numerous e-machines at different position combinations). The aim of this study is to investigate and explain how the system layout affects the powertrain system efficiency and CO2 benefit. Simulation models are used to predict the CO2 of three such configurations. The paper starts with the summary of the 48 V mild hybrid system layouts and an introduction of the possible 48 V mild hybrid system operating modes. Due to the energy flow through different components in each layout, an analysis is presented to compare the powertrain system efficiency of each layout under different operating modes. Then, the suggestions of the most cost effective 48 V mild hybrid systems (based on the different operating mode requirement and vehicle mass) are presented. Finally, several 48 V mild hybrid system layouts and their characteristics are discussed as examples.
Bao, Ran, Avila, Victor, Baxter, James
Method and System to Simulate Battery Pack Key-Off Thermal Behavior after Aggressive Drive Cycles2017-01-06263/28/2017
When a driver completes an aggressive drive cycle on a hybrid vehicle, the High Voltage (HV) battery system may be at risk of exceeding the power limit temperature, due to continuous absorption of radiative and convective heat from the environment, such as from exhaust and pavement, even after key-off. In such a case, in the absence of active cooling, the vehicle may not be keyed-on until battery temperatures are reduced below critical values. A transient thermal analysis is conducted on a HV battery system to simulate the key-off operation using an effective Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methodology. Two stages are considered in this methodology to capture the complexity of the geometry and the multiple phenomena that need to be simulated in the model. The introduced modeling technique can be used for Full Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FHEV) and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) transient key-off situations. When applied during the early design stages, the results from this analysis can significantly improve design robustness and performance, as well as help to identify potential issues that would otherwise not be found until much later in the development process.
Wang, LeeAnn, Garfinkel, George, Khan, Ahteram, Harsha, Mayur, Rao, Prashanth
Development of New Generation Battery Management ECU2017-01-12033/28/2017
Recent electric vehicles use Li-ion batteries to power the main electric motor. To maintain the safety of the main electric motor battery using Li-ion cells, it is necessary to monitor the voltage of each cell. DENSO has developed a battery Electronic Control Unit (ECU) that contributes greatly to the reduction of the cost and the improvement of the reliability of the system. Each manufacturer has been developing a dedicated IC for monitoring the voltages of each cell of a battery. However, since the number of cells that can be monitored is limited, more than one IC is required to measure the voltages of a large number of cells. The increase in the number of ICs and the amount of insulator leads to the rise in system cost. DENSO has developed a dedicated IC that uses a proprietary high-breakdown voltage process, and which enables monitoring up to 24 cells with a single IC chip. A battery management ECU using this type of IC helps reduce the cost and physical size of the system by decreasing the numbers of ICs and the amount of insulator. We have also succeeded in cutting down on the variations in the current consumption of the main battery by providing each monitoring IC with power from an insulated power supply on the low-voltage side, which is based on the fact that variations in the current consumed by the monitoring ICs is one of the causes for non-uniform cell voltages. Controlling the variations has resulted in decreasing the equalizing discharge current, which reduces the amount of heat generated inside the battery management ECU and enhances the reliability of the unit that is used under severe conditions where high voltage is constantly applied.
Inamoto, Takashi, Alger, Lawrence
Switching Frequency Optimization of Boost Converter for HEV Applications2017-01-12363/28/2017
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) can utilize the electromechanical path to optimize the ICE operation and implement the regenerative brake, the fuel economy of a vehicle therefore gets improved significantly. Bi-directional Boost converter is usually used in an electric drive system to boost the high voltage (HV) battery voltage to a higher dc-link voltage. The main advantages for a system with Boost converter is that the traction inverter is de-coupled from battery voltage variations causing it to be over-sized. When designing this Boost converter, the switching frequency is a key parameter for the converter design. Higher switching frequency will lead to higher switching loss of power device (IGBT +diode), moreover, it has significant impact on inductor ripple current, HV battery ripple current and input capacitor current. Therefore, the switching frequency is one of the most important parameters for the design and selection of both active and passive components. This paper investigated the switching frequency optimization with consideration of ripple current of input battery, ripple current and thermal stress of input capacitor, inductor and whole converter efficiency. Both the analysis and test results are provided in this paper, which verified that Boost converter with optimized switching frequency could achieve better tradeoff between converter size, cost, and system efficiency.
Yang, Shuitao, Chen, Lihua, Alam, Mohammed Khorshed, Xu, Fan, Zhou, Yan
Exploration of the Impact of High Voltage Ground Fault in an Electric Vehicle Connected to Earthing Systems Worldwide2017-01-12333/28/2017
Vehicle safety is of paramount importance when it comes to plugging the vehicle into the electric utility grid. The impact of high voltage ground fault has been neglected or, if not, addressed by guidelines extracted from general practices, written in international standards. The agile accretion in Electric Vehicle (EV) development deems an exhaustive study on safety risks pertaining to fault occurrence. While vehicle electrification offers a vital solution to oil scarcity, it is essential that the fast development of the number of electric vehicles on the road does not compromise safety. Meanwhile, the link between technology and demands of society must be governed by vehicle safety. In this paper, a comprehensive study on high voltage (HV) fault conditions occurring in an EV will be conducted. In the next decade, EVs are expected to be prevalent worldwide. Ground fault characteristics are significantly dependent on the earthing system. The state of neutral, supplied by the utility company, in different grounding systems differ from country to country. Moreover, one country could have multiple grounding systems. As will be demonstrated in this paper, each grounding system has a unique implementation. An analytical model describing the theory of the impact of an HV ground fault on a vehicle connected to the TT and TN earthing systems will be developed. Lastly, Safety risks are quantified and assessed for the operation of non-isolated chargers.
Elshaer, Mohamed A., Gale, Allan, Chen, Chingchi
xEV Labels to Assist First and Second Responders, and OthersJ3108_201703 (Current)3/2/2017
This recommended practice prescribes clear and consistent labeling methodology for communicating important xEV high voltage safety information. Examples of such information include identifying key high voltage system component locations and high voltage disabling points. These recommendations are based on current industry best practices identified by the responder community. Although this recommended practice is written for xEVs with high voltage systems, these recommendations can be applied to any vehicle type.
Hybrid - EV Committee
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