Browse Topic: Motor-in-wheel drives

Items (85)

Electric Vehicle Corner Architecture: Driving Comfort Evaluation Using Objective Metrics

2022-01-111903/29/2022

The transportation sector now faces several technological and societal challenges; the most urgent one is a shift to carbon-neutral mobility. One of the most efficient ways to reach this goal is car electrification. Vehicle corner architecture with an in-wheel motor is a promising stage of technological development for a new generation of electric vehicles. The state of art analysis indicates that a higher degree of integration between powertrain and chassis and the shift towards corner solution promises improved performances regarding new vehicle architecture design, energy efficiency, vehicle stability, reducing the overall system's weight. However, in-wheel mounted electric motor significantly increases unsprung vehicle mass; therefore, some undesirable impact on chassis loads and driving comfort occur. A possible solution lies in implementing cooperating active corner systems, which are not limited by traditional active suspension and brake-by-wire but can also include an advanced

Žuraulis, Vidas, Kojis, Paulius, Marotta, Raffaele, Šukevičius, Šarūnas, Šabanovič, Eldar, Ivanov, Valentin, Skrickij, Viktor

Observer-Based Torque Vector Control of a Four In-wheel Motor-driven Electric Vehicles Considering with Unbalanced Electric Magnetic Field

2022-01-110703/29/2022

The accuracy and range of chassis control for a four in-wheel motor (IWM)-driven electric vehicles (EVs), especially in observer-based EVs control for improving road handling and ride comfort, is a challenging task for the IWM-driven vehicle system. Due to the high fatality rate caused by inaccurate state-based control algorithm, how to precisely acquire movement state and chose the reasonable observer-based control algorithm for IWM-driven EVs become a hot topic in both academia and industry. Simultaneously, uncertainty is always existing, e.g., varying road excitation, variable system parameters or nonlinear structure. Meanwhile, the coupling effects between the non-ideal IWM actuator and vehicle are ignored under the assumption of an ideal actuator. To deal with the above mentioned, the paper presents an observer-based control approach, which combines Takagi-Sugeno (T-S) fuzzy observer and torque vector control algorithm, to further improve the chassis performance for IWM-driven EVs

Wang, Zhenfeng, li, xin, Zhu, Yugang, Evans, Sally

Towards brand-independent architectures, components and systems for next generation electrified vehicles optimised for the infrastructure

2022-01-111703/29/2022

The virtual E-VOLVE (Electric Vehicle Optimized for Life, Value and Efficiency) Cluster is realizing and monitoring synergies between eight projects from the GV-01 Horizon 2020 call to execute joint dissemination, exploitation and standardization activities. The Projects ACHILES, CEVOLVER, SYS2WHEEL, EVC1000, and Multi-Moby are the members of the E-VOLVE Cluster that will present their achievements in this paper. Achiles, SYS2Wheel, EVC1000: The integration of the BEV demonstrators with the modeling, design and prototyping of the powertrain and chassis components has been successfully achieved with a new wheel concept and out-of-phase control for the brake system and a new torque vectoring algorithm for enhanced vehicle motion control. Performance and safety-related benefits of integrated corner solutions with in-wheel motors will be reported in the full paper. Optimized concepts for energy and thermal management will be outlined involving trip itinerary, range prediction, smart fast

Armengaud, Eric, Brandstätter, Bernhard, Biček, Matej, Buh, Joze, Sorniotti, Aldo, Hartavi, Ahu Ece, Schernus, Christof, Geury, Thomas, Arapoglou, Stella, Heydrich, Marius, Ivanov, Valentin

Control strategy for ISD suspension considering dynamic vibration absorber of wheel motor

2022-01-033203/29/2022

Vehicles driven by in-wheel motors have the advantages of compact structure and high transmission efficiency, which is one of the most ideal energy-saving, environmentally friendly and safe driving forms in the future. However, the addition of the in-wheel motor significantly increases the unsprung mass of the vehicle, resulting in a decrease in the mass ratio of the vehicle body to the wheel, which will deteriorate the ride comfort and safety of the vehicle. To improve the vibration performance of in-wheel motor vehicles, a semi-active inerter-spring-damping(ISD) suspension based on in-wheel motor vibration absorption is proposed in this paper. Firstly, mounting elements are applied to the wheel to provide elastic isolation between the in-wheel motors and the tyre, which converts the in-wheel motor mass into a vibration absorber to suppress the high-frequency vibration of the unsprung mass. Secondly, an ISD suspension is used to improve the low and mid-frequency characteristics of the

Zhang, Kaidi, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing

CES 2021: GM creates BrightDrop electrified delivery and logistics company

21AUTP02_0902/01/2021

During her CES 2021 keynote in January, GM Chairman and CEO Mary Barra announced the creation of a new logistics company called BrightDrop. The new business will create an ecosystem of electrified products, software and services for first-to-last-mile delivery. This includes EPI, a new electric pallet to shuttle packages, as well as a new commercial delivery truck based on GM's Ultium battery platform, the EV600. The first customer of the new business will be FedEx Express. According to GM, BrightDrop's electrified solutions were created to help businesses reduce costs, maximize productivity, improve employee and freight security and support sustainability efforts. The EP1 pallet will be available in early 2021 and the EV600 light commercial vehicle (LCV) is expected to be on the road by late 2021. The EV600 is GM's first commercial application of its Ultium battery platform and the truck will feature both Level-2 and DC fast-charging capabilities.

Seredynski, Paul

Iterative Dynamic Programming Based Model Predictive Control of Energy Efficient Cruising for Electric Vehicle with Terrain Preview

2020-01-013204/14/2020

As a global optimization method, dynamic programming (DP) can be employed to seek the optimal velocity with minimum energy consumption for EV on given driving cycles. Due to its terrible computational burden, conventional DP is not suitable for real-time implementation especially with higher dimensions. In this paper, we propose an iterative dynamic programming (IDP) approach to reduce computing time firstly. The IDP can obtain the optimal control laws alike the conventional DP by converging the optimal control strategy iteratively and save considerable computing time. Second, the developed IDP and model predictive control (MPC) are combined to establish a real-time cruising controller called IDP-MPC for an EV with terrain preview. In the predictive controller, we use the IDP to solve a constrained finite horizon nonlinear optimization problem. Finally, to assess the performance of the proposed cruising controller, simulation on a realistic urban expressway road terrain is implemented

Ju, Fei, Zhuang, Weichao, Wang, Liangmo, Wang, Qun

Replacement of a 50cc Two-stroke Engine with an Electric Powertrain

2019-32-062301/24/2020

As global regulations look to create a dramatic reduction in CO2 emission and other forms of pollution, companies with products that rely on engine technology must be ready to take on the electrification challenge. Applications that remain using two-stroke engine technology continue to exist due to their very high power density requirements. However, their history of higher pollution compared to four-stroke engines makes them a target to be regulated out of existence. Such high power two-stroke applications include high performance off-road motorcycles. In this type of product, electrification can solve not only pollution challenges but market challenges, such as ridership and public perception. By addressing the core problems presented by the two-stroke engine and turning challenges into opportunity, a strong attraction is created to convert a two-stroke engine motorcycle to an electric vehicle. With Automotive electric vehicle technology paving the way, the basis for cost effective

Beeker, Jesse

Design Analysis of a Retrofit System for an Electric Two Wheeler

2019-28-248211/21/2019

Two wheelers are the major mode of single transport in the metros of India. They contribute about 70% of the auto market unit wise. Also it is proved from the research that for per unit energy consumption they contribute more to the environment emission. Conventional IC engine based energy supply unit can be replaced with an electric DC motor with chargeable battery as the energy source for the two wheelers present in the market. In the current research, engine is replaced with the motor, batteries and controller. The above system is placed on the space emptied by the conventional engine. The design developed is tested on different gradients for identifying the motor torque for minimum and maximum resistances available on the road. The paper provides an insight on the torque requirements based on variable resistances required for two wheelers. Also the system will be used as a retrofit for the existing IC engine bikes to be converted in electric bikes. The paper will help in deign

Vashist, Devendra

Development and Testing of Electric Microcar for Indian Cities

2019-28-000810/11/2019

Population growth, rapid urbanisation and compounding effects of adding personal vehicles have resulted in increasing the urban air pollution in major Indian cities. Apart from the rising concerns about the urban air pollution, the increasing traffic and lack of parking space difficulties are promoting energy efficient small vehicles. Hence, there is a need to develop a new environmental friendly microcar that relatively affordable and easily manoeuvrable in bigger cities. Electric microcar is one of the most promising options to improve the near term sustainability for personal transportation in cities. This paper mainly presents the development of two seater electric microcar suitable for city driving requirements followed by road test. A mathematical modelling with reference to the urban cycle (Part-one) of modified Indian driving cycle (MIDC) is also carried out for the evaluation of energy and power requirements of electric microcar. The developed electric microcar has been tested

Shaik, Amjad, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao, Tappa, Raju, Ratlavath, Ramu

The Differential Braking Steering Control of Special Purpose Flat-Bed Electric Vehicle

2019-01-044004/02/2019

Special purpose flat-bed vehicle is commonly utilized to move heavily items such as containers in warehouse, port and other freight handling scene, the hydraulic steering system have be gradually replaced by electric ones. However, the cost of electric steering system is high for commercial activities. Thus, for some corporates, the differential braking steering strategy becomes an ideal alternative. The purpose of this paper is to present a steering control method for flat-bed electric vehicle based on differential braking system. There are two main components of the control method, steering while moving forward and pivot steering, and each of them was composed by upper layer and executive layer. To evaluate the practicability of the control methods, a 7-DOF flat-bed vehicle model was established in Simulink. According to the simulation results at different load, velocity and steering target, the control method proposed in this paper showed quite well performance and meet the basic

Dai, Yaqi, Yu, Liangyao, Song, Jian, Zhao, Wenzong

Model-Based Pitch Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle

2019-01-045104/02/2019

On the dual-motor electric vehicle, which is driven by two electric motors mounted on the front and rear axles respectively, longitudinal dynamic control and electro-dynamic braking can be achieved by controlling the torque of front and rear axle motors respectively. Suspension displacement is related to the wheel torque, thus the pitch of vehicle body can be influenced by changing the torque distribution ratio. The pitch of the body has a great influence on the vehicle comfort, which occurs mainly during acceleration and braking progress. Traditionally active suspension is adopted to control the pitch of body. Instead, in this paper an ideal torque distribution strategy is developed to limit the pitch during acceleration and braking progress. This paper first explores the relationship between the torque distribution and the body pitch through the real vehicle test, which reveals the feasibility of the vehicle comfort promotion by optimizing the torque distribution coefficient. A two

Yu, Yize, Xiong, Lu, Yu, Zhuoping, Yang, Xing, Hou, Yuye, Leng, Bo

Development and Control of Four-Wheel Independent Driving and Modular Steering Electric Vehicles for Improved Maneuverability Limits

2019-01-045904/02/2019

Electric vehicles are capable of more flexible drivetrain configurations, such that driving dynamics of each wheel could be controlled independently to increase its stability and maneuverability bounds. We hereby propose a configuration consisting of four wheel independent driving and front and rear axle modular steering. The vehicle implements drive-by-wire technology, which means the control program running on vehicle control computer will have direct control authority of the vehicle under normal driving conditions, based on inputs of higher level systems such as human drivers and autonomous driving programs. Both the torque allocation on four wheels and the steering allocation on axles are completely independent on the mechanical hardware level, thus the vehicle is able to harness adverse contact conditions with confidence. A slip-aware model-free control method for torque allocation and steering is proposed and inspected in the paper, with digital model of a modified SUV simulated

Yang, Haoguang, Liu, Chen, Shi, Jiongming, Zheng, Gangtie

Motor matters

19AUTP03_0203/01/2019

New designs and materials are key to the next generation of electric machines for EV propulsion. With the momentum to expand vehicle electrification increasing steadily, the industry is beginning to arrange the pieces for its multi-billion-dollar transformation of powertrain development. Ford said it intends to have some 40 electrified models in showrooms by 2022, including 16 all-new battery-electric vehicles. Honda projects electrified vehicles will account for two-thirds of the company's global sales by 2030. General Motors plans 20 electrified models globally by 2023. Even Ferrari is joining the march. As the list grows, it's clear that in a few years, propulsion-system electrification no longer will be news per se. The dialogue will then shift to key differentiators in design, engineering and manufacturing that impact efficiency.

Visnic, Bill, Brooke, Lindsay

Schaeffler debuts new Mover concept at Detroit symposium

18AUTP10_1110/01/2018

As part of its 11th Schaeffler Symposium, the Tier 1 supplier debuted a new urban e-mobility vehicle concept called the “Schaeffler Mover.” The symposium, held once every four years, is a forum for Schaeffler to present its technologies and component forecasts to auto-industry professionals and media. The Mover concept is a flexible and emission-free platform engineered for a range of different low-speed vehicle applications. All the drive and chassis components are integrated in one vertical unit called the “Schaeffler Intelligent Corner Module,” which integrates in-wheel motors with discreet steering capability at each corner to save space and enhance maneuverability. Flexibility was a key engineering goal on the Mover.

Seredynski, Paul

Structural Integrity of In-Wheel Motors

2018-01-182909/10/2018

In-wheel motors offer an optimized solution for novel drivetrain architectures of future electric vehicles that could penetrate into the mainstream automotive industry, moving the wheel actuation where it’s required, directly inside the wheels. Obtainable literature mainly deals with optimization of electromagnetically active parts, however, mechanical design of electromagnetically passive parts that indirectly influence motor performance also requires detailed analysis and extensive validation. To meet the optimal performance requirements (also durable) of an in-wheel traction motor, their mechanical design requires topology optimization of housing elements, thermal mapping, geometrical and dimensional tolerance checks and selection of proper hub bearings, in order to assure consistent electromagnetic behavior stability The following paper uniquely describes the review of loads acting on an in-wheel motor, the workflow of a typical mechanical design process, testing, and validation

Frajnkovic, Matic, Omerovic, Senad, Rozic, Uros, Kern, Jurij, Connes, Raphael, Rener, Kristof, Biček, Matej

Sensor-Free Smart Wheel

TBMG-2900006/01/2018

Technology was developed that not only allows wheels to “know” when and how to rotate, but also enables them to work together in interactive teams. The new technology can be used wherever there is a need for additional support when pulling, pushing, or driving a system that uses wheels. Potential applications range from mobility aids such as wheelchairs, to dollies, wheelbarrows, and shopping carts. Monitoring the data generated when the motors inside the wheels rotate allows the motors and wheels to be controlled without the need for additional sensors.

Volvo CE sees major efficiency gain from hybrid-electric wheel loader

17TOFHP10_1210/01/2017

Volvo Construction Equipment partnered with Waste Management (WM), the California Energy Commission and CALSTART to put its LX1 prototype electric hybrid wheel loader to the test: field test, that is. The company showcased the LX1 at a media event in July at WM's Redwood Landfill in Novato, CA. Made up of 98% new parts, the LX1 prototype series hybrid has a fundamentally new machine design. It incorporates a driveline that consists of electric-drive motors mounted at the wheels, electric-driven hydraulics, a battery energy storage system, a significantly smaller diesel engine and new machine architecture including a new design of the lifting unit.

Shuttleworth, Jennifer

Path-Tracking Controller Design for a 4WIS and 4WID Electric Vehicle with Steer-by-Wire System

2017-01-195409/23/2017

Path tracking is the rudimentary capability and primary task for autonomous ground vehicles (AGVs). In this paper, a novel four-wheel-independent-steering (4WIS) and four-wheel-independent-drive (4WID) electric vehicle (EV) is proposed which is equipped with steer-by-wire (SBW) system. For path-tracking controller design, the nonlinear vehicle model with 2 degrees of freedom (DOF) is built utilizing the nonlinear Dugoff tire model. The nonlinear dynamic model of SBW system is conducted as well considering the external disturbances. As to the path-tracking controller design, an integrated four-wheel steering (4WS) and direct yaw-moment control (DYC) system is designed based on the model predictive control (MPC) algorithm to track the target path described by desired yaw angle and lateral displacement. Then, the fast terminal sliding mode controller (FTSMC) is proposed for the SBW system to suppress disturbances. The control allocation algorithm of DYC is realized by weighted least

Hang, Peng, Chen, Xinbo, Luo, Fengmei

Network Scheduling for Distributed Controls of Electric Vehicles Considering Actuator Dynamic Characteristics *CSP Meta QA Testing*

2017-01-001903/28/2017

Electric vehicle (EV) has been regarded as not only an effective solution for environmental issues but also a more controllable and responsible device to driving forces with electric motors and precise torque measurement. For electric vehicle equipped with four in-wheel motors, its tire longitudinal forces can be generated independently and individually with fully utilized tire adhesion at each corner. This type of the electric vehicles has a distributed drive system, and often regarded as an over-actuated system since the number of actuators in general exceeds the control variables. Control allocation (CA) is often considered as an effective means for the control of over-actuated systems. The in-vehicle network technology has been one of the major enablers for the distributed drive systems. The vehicle studied in this research has an electrohydraulic brake system (EHB) on front axle, while an electromechanical brake system (EMB) on rear axle. The focus of this study is on the

Zhao, Yang, Deng, Weiwen, Wu, Jian, He, Rui

Study on Reconfigurable Driving Force Allocation Strategy of Distributed Driving Electric Vehicle

2016-01-802609/27/2016

The distributed driving electric vehicle, uses four in-wheel motors as distributed power sources is a typical over-actuated system. Thus, this kind of vehicle has better stability potential and fault tolerance than the conventional one. In this paper, the general structure of fault-tolerance control (FTC) system based on control allocation is analyzed. And a reconfigurable driving force allocation strategy is proposed to ensure the trajectory tracking and stability when some motors’ faults occur. Both the constraints of tire force and actuators are taken into consideration. With motors’ faults treated as the constraints of actuators, FTC is integrated. For validation, the proposed allocation strategy is simulated in co-simulation environment based on Carsim and Matlab/Simulink.

Cui, Xiangpo, Chen, Guoying

Design and Research of Micro EV Driven by In-Wheel Motors on Rear Axle

2016-01-195009/18/2016

As is known to all, the structure of the chassis has been greatly simplified as the application of in-wheel motor in electric vehicle (EV) and distributed control is allowed. The micro EV can alleviate traffic jams, reduce the demand for motor and battery capacity due to its small size and light weight and accordingly solve the problem that in-wheel motor is limited by inner space of the wheel hub. As a result, this type of micro EV is easier to be recognized by the market. In the micro EV above, two seats are side by side and the battery is placed in the middle of the chassis. Besides, in-wheel motors are mounted on the rear axle and only front axle retains traditional hydraulic braking system. Based on this driving/braking system, distribution of braking torque, system reliability and braking intensity is analyzed in this paper. In order to coordinate with traditional hydraulic ABS control to ensure the braking stability of the vehicle, model following control (MFC) is adopted to

Zhuo, Guirong, Zhang, Subin, Xiong, Kun

Improvement of Ride Comfort by Unsprung Negative Skyhook Damper Control Using In-Wheel Motors

2016-01-167804/05/2016

Vehicles equipped with in-wheel motors (IWMs) are capable of independent control of the driving force at each wheel. These vehicles can also control the motion of the sprung mass by driving force distribution using the suspension reaction force generated by IWM drive. However, one disadvantage of IWMs is an increase in unsprung mass. This has the effect of increasing vibrations in the 4 to 8 Hz range, which is reported to be uncomfortable to vehicle occupants, thereby reducing ride comfort. This research aimed to improve ride comfort through driving force control. Skyhook damper control is a typical ride comfort control method. Although this control is generally capable of reducing vibration around the resonance frequency of the sprung mass, it also has the trade-off effect of worsening vibration in the targeted mid-frequency 4 to 8 Hz range. This research aimed to improve mid-frequency vibration by identifying the cause of this adverse effect through the equations of motion. As a

Katsuyama, Etsuo, Omae, Ayana

Effect of Three Controls (Camber Angle Control, Derivative Steering Assistance Control, and Inside-Outside Wheel Braking Force and Driving Force Control in Body Slip Angle Area

2016-01-166604/05/2016

In this research, we examine the three controls inside-outside wheel braking force and driving force, camber angle, and the derivative steering assistance to determine how angle differences affect cornering performance and controllability. This is accomplished by comparing body slip angle area differences in a closed loop examination of the grip to drift area using a driving simulator. The results show that inside-outside wheel braking force and driving force control in the area just before critical cornering occurs has a significant effect on vehicle stability. We also clarified that controlling the camber angle enhances grip-cornering force, and confirmed that the sideslip limit could be improved in the vicinity of the critical cornering area. Additionally, when the counter steer response was improved by the use of derivative steering assistance control in the drift area exceeding the critical cornering limit, corrective steering became easier. Moreover, the effect could be achieved

Yamaguchi, Ryo, Nozaki, Hiromichi

Study on Power Ratio Between the Front Motor and Rear Motor of Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Based on Energy Efficiency Optimization

2016-01-115404/05/2016

For distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEVs), the influence of the power ratio between the front and rear motors on the energy efficiency characteristics is investigated. The power-train systems of the DDEVs in this study are divided into two different power-train configurations. The first is with its front axle driven by wheel-side motors and the rear axle driven by in-wheel motors, and the second is with both the front and rear axles driven by in-wheel motors. The energy consumption simulation and analysis platform of the DDEV is built with Matlab/Simulink. The parameters of the key components are determined by the experiments to ensure the validity of the data used in simulation. At the same time, the vehicle’s average energy efficiency coefficient is defined to describe the energy efficiency characteristics of the power-train strictly. Besides, the control strategies for driving and braking of the DDEV based on energy efficiency optimization are presented. Then, based on the

Shen, Peihong, Sun, Zechang, Zeng, Yingjie, Wang, Xinjian, Dai, Haifeng

An Explanation of the In-Wheel Motor Drive System’s Vibration at Low Velocity Using Motor-Wheel Frequency Characteristics

2016-01-167304/05/2016

The in-wheel-motor (IWM) drive system has some interesting features, such as the vibration of this structure at low velocity. An explanation of this phenomenon is given in this paper by considering the dynamics performance of the in-wheel motor drive system under small slip ratio conditions. Firstly, a frequency response function (FRF) is deduced for the drive system that is composed of a dynamic tire model and a simplified motor model. Furthermore, an equation between the resonance velocity with the parameters of the drive system is obtained by combining the resonance frequency of this drive system with the fundamental frequency of the motor. The correctness of the equation is demonstrated through simulations and experimental tests on different road surfaces. The impact of different parameters on the vibration can be explained by this equation, which can give the engineer some instructions to design a control method to avoid this feature.

Chen, Long, Zhang, Shuwei, Bian, Mingyuan, Luo, Yugong, Li, Keqiang

Fault-Tolerant Control for 4WID/4WIS Electric Vehicle Based on EKF and SMC

2015-01-284609/29/2015

This paper presents a fault-tolerant control (FTC) algorithm for four-wheel independently driven and steered (4WID/4WIS) electric vehicle. The Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) algorithm is utilized in the fault detection (FD) module so as to estimate the in-wheel motor parameters, which could detect parameter variations caused by in-wheel motor fault. A motion controller based on sliding mode control (SMC) is able to compute the generalized forces/moments to follow the desired vehicle motion. By considering the tire adhesive limits, a reconfigurable control allocator optimally distributes the generalized forces/moments among healthy actuators so as to minimize the tire workloads once the actuator fault is detected. An actuator controller calculates the driving torques of the in-wheel motors and steering angles of the wheels in order to finally achieve the distributed tire forces. If one or more in-wheel motors lose efficacy, the FD module diagnoses the actuator failures first. Then the

Li, Chunshan, Chen, Guoying, Zong, Changfu, Liu, Wenchao

Novel Electromechanical Brake Actuator Adopting the Two Way Ball Screw

2015-01-269809/27/2015

In this paper, a novel Electromechanical Brake actuator (EMB) is redesigned aimed at an electric vehicle driven by wheel hub motor. The two way ball screw is adopted in this mechanism. Clearance automatic adjustment and parking braking function is added in this mechanism. As a consequence, fast braking response is achieved and the wear difference of the inner and outer pads can be minimized and the initial braking force can also be improved. The electric vehicle is based on a traditional chassis. In this electric vehicle which driven by wheel hub motor, the brake disc and brake actuator will be correspondingly moved inside because wheel hub motor will take up inner space of wheel hub. As a result, the actuator might interfere with the suspension and steering systems and influence hard spot of chassis design. To solve this problem, conversely installed caliper concept is used in this paper. This proposal effectively solves the problem of limited installation space so that the inner

Zhuo, Guirong, Zhang, Subin

Development of Three-Motor Electric Vehicle “EMIRAI 2 xEV”

2015-01-159704/14/2015

Mitsubishi Electric has developed a concept car “EMIRAI 2 xEV” that features an electric vehicle (EV) powertrain for safe, comfortable, eco-friendly driving experiences in the future. The vehicle was exhibited during the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show and the 2014 Automotive Engineering Exposition. The xEV is a four-wheel-drive EV with three motors: a water-cooled front motor and two air-cooled rear motors with integrated inverters. The rear wheels can be driven independently. The degrees of freedom of the actuation can realize improved maneuverability and safety. The vehicle is also equipped with an onboard charger with a built-in step down DC/DC converter, an EV control unit, a battery management unit, and electric power steering. All of the instruments are developed by Mitsubishi Electric. Motion control systems for the xEV have been developed based on our proprietary motor control technology. In particular, this paper shows the design of three controllers: the high-precision traction

Yokoyama, Kazuto, Iezawa, Masahiro, Tanaka, Hideyuki, Enoki, Keiichi

Optimal Regenerative Braking Control for 4WD Electric Vehicles with Decoupled Electro-Hydraulic Brake System

2015-01-111704/14/2015

Regenerative braking control for a four-wheel-drive (4WD) electric vehicle (EV) equipped with a decoupled electro-hydraulic brake system was studied. The energy flow of the 4WD electric vehicle was analyzed during braking, and the brake force distribution strategy between the front-rear axles, regenerative braking and hydraulic braking was studied. Considering ECE R13 regulations, motors and battery pack characteristic constraints, the optimal regenerative braking control strategy using Genetic Algorithm (GA) was proposed. A Hardware-in-loop (HIL) test was built to verify the proposed regenerative braking control strategy. The results show that the optimal regenerative braking control strategy for the 4WD electric vehicle was advantageous over the comparison program, and regenerative energy efficiency reaches 78.87% under the Shanghai Urban Driving Cycle (SUDC).

Liu, Yang, Sun, Zechang

A Control Allocation Strategy for Electric Vehicles with In-wheel Motors and Hydraulic Brake System

2015-01-160004/14/2015

Distributed drive electric vehicle (EV) is driven by four independent hub motors mounted directly in wheels and retains traditional hydraulic brake system. So it can quickly produce driving/braking motor torque and large stable hydraulic braking force. In this paper a new control allocation strategy for distributed drive electric vehicle is proposed to improve vehicle's lateral stability performance. It exploits the quick response of motor torque and controllable hydraulic pressure of the hydraulic brake system. The allocation strategy consists of two sections. The first section uses an optimal allocation controller to calculate the total longitudinal force of each wheel. In the controller, a dynamic efficiency matrix is designed via local linearization to improve lateral stability control performance, as it considers the influence of tire coupling characteristics over yaw moment control in extreme situations. The second part adopts a longitudinal force allocator to separate each

Zou, Tong, Xiong, Lu, Yang, Pengfei, Jin, Chi

Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Heat Flow in Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Hub Motor

2014-01-290010/13/2014

This paper investigates the heat dissipation in the hub motor of an electric two-wheeler using lumped parameter (LP), finite element (FE) and computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models. The motor uses external rotor permanent magnet brushless DC topology and nearly all of its losses are generated in the stator. The hub motor construction restricts the available conductive paths for heat dissipation from the stator to the ambient only through the shaft. In contrast to an internal rotor structure, where the stator winding losses are diffused via conduction, here convection plays a major role in loss dissipation. Therefore, a LP thermal model with improved convection modelling has been proposed to calculate the temperature of the components inside the hub motor. The developed model is validated with the FE thermal model and the test data. In addition, CFD tools has been used to accurately model the internal and the external flow as well as the convective heat transfer of the hub motor

Fasil, Muhammed, Plesner, Daniel, Walther, Jens Honore, Mijatovic, Nenad, Holbøll, Joachim, Jensen, Bogi Bech

Fault-Tolerant Control for 4WID/4WIS Electric Vehicles

2014-01-258910/13/2014

The passive fault-tolerant approach for four-wheel independently driven and steered (4WID/4WIS) electric vehicles has been investigated in this study. An adaptive control based passive fault-tolerant controller is designed to improve vehicle safety, performance and maneuverability when an actuator fault happens. The proposed fault tolerant control method consists of the following three parts: 1) a fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) module that monitors vehicle driving condition, detects and diagnoses actuator failures with the inequality constraints; 2) a motion controller that computes the generalized forces/moments to track the desired vehicle motion using Model Predictive Control (MPC); 3) a reconfigurable control allocator that redistributes the generalized forces/moments to four wheels with equality constrained optimization. The FTC approach is based on the reconfigurable control allocation which reallocates the generalized forces/moments among healthy actuators once the actuator

Li, Chunshan, Chen, Guoying, Zong, Changfu

A New Predictive Deadbeat Current Control Strategy for Hub Motor Based on State-observer

2014-01-290210/13/2014

In this paper, the predictive control strategy is employed to improve the current tracking performance of hub motor in 4WD electric vehicle due to its fast dynamic response. But the performance of the conventional predictive deadbeat current control suffers greatly from the parameter variations and other disturbances. Toward this, this paper presents a new predictive control strategy for hub motor; this control scheme combines an improved predictive control law with a state-observer to estimate the future motor currents and system disturbances based on a decoupled model. It provides a decoupled control of hub motor and offers stability against the variations in motor inductance and robustness against system uncertainties. The feasibility and validity of the proposed predictive current control strategy is verified through the simulation results.

Zhang, Hu, Zhang, JianWei, Guo, Konghui

An Accurate Modeling for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Wheel Motor Including Iron Loss

2014-01-186704/01/2014

For high torque permanent magnet wheel motor, this paper describes an experimental research method to optimize and identify the motor parameters based on the results of offline calculation. In order to improve the accuracy of motor parameters identification, the motor model considering the affect of iron loss was established, and the motor parameters were identified using genetic algorithm (GA). Based on this, parameters validation experiment was performed. The results show that: parameters obtained by this method can be used to describe the steady-state and transient-state response of permanent magnet synchronous motors accurately.

Li, Yang, Zhang, Jianwei, Guo, Konghui

Actuator Fault Detection and Diagnosis of 4WID/4WIS Electric Vehicles

2013-01-254410/14/2013

A fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) algorithm of 4WID/4WIS Electric Vehicles has been proposed in this study aiming to find the actuator faults. The 4WID/4WIS EV is one of the promising architectures for electric vehicle designs which is driven independently by four in-wheel motors and steered independently by four steering motors. The 4WID/4WIS EVs have many potential abilities in advanced vehicle control technologies, but diagnosis and accommodation of the actuator faults becomes a significant issue. The proposed FDD approach is an important part of the active fault tolerant control (AFTC) algorithm. The main objective of the FDD approach is to monitor vehicle states, find the faulty driving motor and then feedback fault information to the controller which would adopt appropriate control laws to accommodate the post-fault vehicle control system. The unique character of the proposed FDD approach is that it is a system-level method, namely it tries to locate the faulty motor and

Liu, Chao, Zong, Changfu, He, Lei, Li, Chunshan, Liu, Minghui

Comparative Studies of Drivetrain Systems for Electric Vehicles

2013-01-246709/24/2013

Vehicle electrification is being actively expanded into coming generations of passenger and commercial vehicles. This technology trend is helping vehicles to become more energy efficient. For electric vehicle (EV) city bus application, the system designers have been experimenting with a number of options including direct drive and multi-speed gearbox architectures. Direct drive scenario offers simplified drivetrain system, however requires a large and powerful electric motor. Multi-speed transmission system provides an opportunity to reduce motor size and optimize its operating points, but increases complexity from the architecture and controls point of view. This paper provides an overview of several common system layouts and examines their advantages and disadvantages. Vehicle simulation results are presented to compare direct drive vs. multi-speed technology from the gradeability, acceleration and energy consumption points of view. These results demonstrate the advantages of EV

Wang, Hongbin, Song, Xubin, Saltsman, Benjamin, Hu, Haoran

Passive Fault-Tolerant Performance of 4WID/4WIS Electric Vehicles Based on MPC and Control Allocation

2013-24-014509/08/2013

The passive fault-tolerant performance of the integrated vehicle controller (IVC) applied on 4WID/4WIS Electric Vehicles has been investigated in this study. The 4WID/4WIS EV is driven independently by four in-wheel motors and steered independently by four steering motors. Thanks to increased control flexibility of the over-actuated architecture, Control Allocation (CA) can be applied to control the 4WID/4WIS EVs so as to improve the handling and stability. Another benefit of the over-actuated architecture is that the 4WID/4WIS Electric Vehicle has sufficient redundant actuators to fight against the safety critical situation when one or more actuators fail. The integrated vehicle control (IVC) approach is composed of two parts, i.e. a motion controller which is based on the Model Predictive Control (MPC) to determine the generalized forces/moments in order to track the desired vehicle motion; a control allocator which adopts Control Allocation (CA) method and distributes the

Liu, Chao, Zong, Changfu, He, Lei, Liu, Jie, Li, Chunshan

Two or Three Wheel Motor Vehicles (EC Type Approval) Regulations, 2003.

INT-REG-51507/25/2013

Two or Three-Wheel Motor Vehicles (EC Type Approval) Regulations 2003.

Vision of Electric Automotive Machines - The Future is Here

2013-01-152704/08/2013

The purpose of this document is to present my vision of currently-attainable possibilities for electric automotive machines. This paper is set to demonstrate how the incorporation of new and enhanced technological and design concepts, as well as suggestions for standardization among industry agencies and manufacturers can currently greatly improve the efficiency, commercialization, and marketability of electric automotive machines.

Goldenberg, Nahum

The Regenerative Braking Control Strategy of Four-Wheel-Drive Electric Vehicle Based on Power Generation Efficiency of Motors

2013-01-041204/08/2013

Nowadays, the endurance mileage of electric vehicle is commonly short. For the purpose of enhancing the endurance mileage of 4WD electric vehicles, this paper proposes a new control strategy based on the generation efficiency of in-wheel motors. When the brake strength is low, the strategy defines the torque on which the motor has the highest generate efficiency as the upper limit of the braking torque of the front axle. What's more, the proportion of mechanical braking force is reduced. Because of these, the vehicle has a higher generation power. The simulation model is built up by using Matlab/Simulink and CarSim software, and the strategy is simulated under several driving cycles. The result shows that, comparing with the two traditional braking force distribution strategies, the new strategy can obviously improve the regenerative efficiency.

Xu, Wenkai, Zheng, Hongyu, Liu, Zongyu

Assessing Environmental Benefits of Electric Aircraft Taxiing through Object-Oriented Simulation

2012-01-221810/22/2012

A number of promising technologies to perform ground movements without main engines are currently being researched. Notably, onboard ground propulsion systems have been proposed featuring electric motors in the landing gear. While such on-board systems will help save fuel and avoid emissions while on ground, they add significant weight to the aircraft, which has an impact on the performances in flight. A tool to assess the global benefits in terms of fuel consumption and emissions is presented in this work. A concept of an aircraft-integrated ground propulsion system is firstly considered and its performances and weights are determined, assuming the Auxiliary Power Unit or a zero-emission device like a fuel-cell as power source for the system. Afterwards, a model of the propulsion system integrated into an object-oriented, mid-sized aircraft model is generated, capable of precisely simulating a whole aircraft mission. Two different gate-to-gate flights with realistic trajectories are

Re, Fabrizio

Major Characteristics of a New ICT System Architecture for Electric Vehicles: Technology Leadership Brief

2012-01-900610/08/2012

The demands on future mobility concepts for private transport will be determined by three major trends: climate change, urbanization and demographic change. These trends also provide the basis for three main development goals: “zero emissions”, “intelligent mobility” and “zero accidents”. In combination with intelligent traffic concepts and driver assistance functions, electric mobility will make a vital contribution to implementing these goals. To nevertheless keep individual mobility affordable and safe, the complexity of the electrical/electronic architecture (E/E architecture) of today's vehicles must be significantly reduced. It must advance along the steps that avionics and industrial automation already took more than 20 years ago, i.e. it must adopt the structures and methods of modern information and communication technologies (ICT). The text below describes the motivation and idea for future E/E architectures and the potential which arises from changing them significantly. The

Fehling, Marcus, Armbruster, Michael

Energy Efficiency of Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles

2012-36-010510/02/2012

This study presents the evaluation of the energy efficiency of a series hybrid electric vehicle through the theoretical development of two electric propulsion systems and an experimental study of fuel consumption of the original vehicle. The experimental analysis was done by a test setting, consisting mainly of a chassis dynamometer, an autopilot system and a fuel flowmeter, all connected to the data acquisition system. In this study it was developed two theoretical models of propulsion systems for Series - HEV. The first one consists of four in-wheel motors and the second one consists of two in-wheel motors on the rear axle. There are various methods for embedding a motor in the wheel. It is necessary to consider the weight, power and transmission efficiency. In the theoretical model it was considered a cycloidal reducer, which allows a reduction of 3:1 to 119:1 in one stage with an efficiency of 93%, together with a brushless DC motor, which has a high power density. The results of

Sanchez, Fernando Zegarra, Braga, Sergio Leal

Hybrid Transit Bus Technology Assessment - A Feasibility Approach

2012-36-013910/02/2012

Stricter environmental regulation and the increasing concern about fuel economy and emissions have driven transit agencies and operators toward environmental and economic concerns when selecting transit bus technology. In this scenario, hybrid bus, that combines two or more distinct propulsion systems (generally combustion engine and electric motor), has been seen as a choice that balances both the need for better environmental and efficiency performance and capital expenditures for introducing new technology-based transit bus fleets. The source of better performance of hybrid buses is the ability to i) optimize the operating point of combustion engine to achieve best fuel economy; ii) store energy generated during braking at storage devices (batteries, supercapacitors or flywheels), to be used to power the vehicle when needed, and, hence, iii) downsizing engine due to reduced average power requirements. Most significant gains in efficiency and environmental performance of hybrid

Barbosa, Fabio Coelho

Combining Regenerative Braking and Anti-Lock Braking for Enhanced Braking Performance and Efficiency

2012-01-023404/16/2012

The anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a widespread driver assistance system which allows a short braking distance while simultaneously maintaining the stability and steerability of the car. Vehicles with electric single-wheel drive offer many possibilities of improving the energy efficiency and the braking performance during ABS braking. In this paper, two different ways of including the electric machines in the ABS are analyzed in detail: the damping of torsional drive train vibrations in combination with recuperation and the dynamic split of the braking torque, where the hydraulic braking torque is kept constant and the dynamic modulation of the braking torque is performed by the electric machines. The damping algorithm is developed on the basis of a linearized model of the drive train and the tire-road contact by using state feedback and pole placement methods. Simulation results with a detailed multi-body system show the effectiveness of the control algorithms.

Rosenberger, Martin, Uhlig, Richard Anton, Koch, Tilo, Lienkamp, Markus

Development of a Path-following and a Speed Control Driver Model for an Electric Vehicle

2012-01-025004/16/2012

A two-passenger all-wheel-drive urban electric vehicle (AUTO21EV) with four in-wheel motors and an active steering system has been designed and developed at the University of Waterloo. In order to evaluate the handling and performance of such a vehicle in the design stage and analyze the effectiveness of different chassis control systems before implementing them in the real vehicle, the simulation of a large number of different open-loop and closed-loop test maneuvers is necessary. Thus, in the simulation environment, not only is a mathematical vehicle model needed for every test maneuver, but a driver model must also be designed to simulate the closed-loop test maneuvers. The role of the driver model is to calculate the control inputs required to successfully follow a predefined path. Such a driver model can be implemented as an inverse dynamics problem or by a representation of a driver that can look ahead, preview the path, and change the steering wheel angle and acceleration or

Jalali, Kiumars, Lambert, Steve, McPhee, John

Integrating In-Wheel Motors into Vehicles - Real-World Experiences

2012-01-103704/16/2012

Compact direct drive in-wheel motors with integrated inverters, control and brakes offer a number of distinct advantages compared to conventional electric drive systems. The most obvious being that the drivetrain is now packaged within the wheel freeing up space elsewhere, in addition many driveline components and their associated losses are eliminated and the vehicle efficiency, response and handling can be improved. In new vehicle applications this allows complete freedom for designers to optimize the vehicle layout, have more usable space inside the vehicle body and enables revolutionary vehicle concepts (which will become more important as road space becomes scarce and taxation measures migrate towards vehicle size). In retrofit applications the compact package allows an electric drive to be added to any existing vehicle without requiring any significant disruption to the vehicle platform to keep integration costs down. This represents an opportunity for OEM's to hybridize their

Watts, Andy, Vallance, Andrew, Fraser, Al, Whitehead, Andrew, Hilton, Christopher, Monkhouse, Helen, Barrie-Smith, John, George, Sunoj, Ellims, Michael

The Benefits of Hybrid Electric Drive for Military Operations

12VHYBRD20103/27/2012

Hybrid Electric Drive (HED) provides the potential to improve military vehicle capabilities beyond the well understood fuel economy benefits. Additional HED benefits for military operations can be realized in the areas of mobility, survivability, lethality, power generation and maintainability. General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS) continues to demonstrate significant advantages that HED can offer to military vehicle platforms. This presentation will focus on the advanced military capabilities provided by HED utilizing in-hub wheel motors and include a summary of GDLS demonstrator vehicles with integrated HED. Presenter Andrew Silveri, GENERAL DYNAMICS LAND SYST

Silveri, Andrew

Concept Study of Range Extender Applications in Electric Scooters

2011-32-059211/08/2011

Nowadays, politicians are forced by air pollution prevention to demand zero emission vehicles (ZEV) in the form of pure electric vehicles. The poor capacity to weight factor of actual batteries compared to any kind of liquid or gaseous hydro-carbon fuel is the main reason for the retarded implementation of ZEV. Solutions offered by automobile manufacturers are mild to full hybrid powertrains based on the well established ICE platform. The difficulty of those approaches of electrification is to compete with the performance and benefit costumers expect from standard automobiles. Pure electric vehicles are rare and often disappointing regarding range and/or performance. Additionally the costs for such vehicles, which are mainly driven by the battery prices, are comparatively high, impeding their market entrance and acceptance. Low price electric city scooters are actually offered as pure electric vehicles in a wide variety of different models. The category of city scooters (L1e [1]) is

Schacht, Hans-Jürgen, Kirchberger, Roland, Winkler, Franz, Schmidt, Stephan P.

Mechanical Design of In-Wheel Motor Driven Vehicles with Torque-Vectoring

2011-36-013210/04/2011

Volatile oil prices and increased environmental sensitivity together with political concerns have moved the attention of governments, automobile manufacturers and customers to alternative power trains. From the actual point of view the most promising concepts for future passenger cars are based on the conversion of electrical into mechanical energy. In-wheel motors are an interesting concept towards vehicle electrification that provides also high potentials to improve vehicle dynamics and handling. Beside aspects concerning the electric system (e.g. motor type, energy storage, and control strategy), there are also some open questions related with the mechanical design of in-wheel motor driven vehicles that need to be solved before series production. In this work, the results of a research project being developed at the Institute of Automotive Engineering - FTG - of Graz University of Technology together with MAGNA Powertrain and MAGNA STEYR dealing with the design of an in-wheel motor

Rojas Rojas, Andrés Eduardo, Niederkofler, Haymo, Hirschberg, Wolfgang

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