Browse Topic: Synthetic fuels

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Jet Reference Fluid Study for Fuel Tank SealantsAIR4275B (Current)2/3/2021
This information report covers two distinct projects to formulate Jet Refrence Fluids (JRF) for testing of material compatibility. The first effort began in 1978 and focused on producing a formulation (JRF-2) that simulated JP-4 and included composition with metallic ions that reproduced chalking of fuel tank sealants. This effort resulted in the preparation of AMS2629 that defined the formulation of JRF-2 (Type 1) and the same formulation with metallic ions (Type 2). The second effort began in 2002 and focused on preparing a JRF that simulated Jet A, JP-5 and JP-8. This effort went through multiple iterations, but eventually resulted in a JRF-3 formulation composed of Jet A plus military additives spiked to 25% aromatic content and high levels of sulfur experienced in the global fuel supply. Since the metallic ions added to JRF-2 demonstrated their ability to simulate a chalking reaction, chalking was not tested with the ions added to JRF-3. AMS2629 was changed multiple times to reflect the onging changes of this project and included both Type 1 and Type 2 formulations.
AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee
Potential Analysis and Virtual Development of SI Engines Operated with Synthetic Fuel DMC+2020-01-03424/14/2020
On the way to emission-free mobility, future fuels must be CO2 neutral. To achieve this, synthetic fuels are being developed. In order to better assess the effects of the new fuels on the engine process, simulation models are being developed that reproduce the chemical and physical properties of these fuels. In this paper, the fuel DMC+ is examined. DMC+ (a mixture of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and methyl formate (MeFo) mainly, characterized by the lack of C-C Bonds and high oxygen content) offers advantages with regard to evaporation heat, demand of oxygen and knock resistance. Furthermore, its combustion is almost particle free. With the aid of modern 0D/1D simulation methods, an assessment of the potential of DMC+ can be made. It is shown that the simulative conversion of a state-of-the-art gasoline engine to DMC+ fuel offers advantages in terms of efficiency in many operating points even if the engine design is not altered. This is mainly due to the higher knock resistance and the lower temperatures in the intake stroke resulting from the higher amount of evaporated fuel. For a fixed amount of fuel energy, a lower air mass flow rate is needed, making the fuel particularly interesting for down-sizing concepts. Therefore, the engine design is adapted for the new fuel to take full advantage of the fluid properties. In a first step, the adaptions include the compression ratio, the engine displacement and the turbocharger matching. A considerable efficiency gain in the whole operating range can be demonstrated, making DMC+ a highly promising prospective for future SI engines.
Wagner, Cornelius, Grill, Michael, Keskin, Mahir-Tim, Bargende, Michael, Cai, Liming, Pitsch, Heinz
CFD-Driven Preliminary Investigation of Ethanol-Diesel Diffusive Combustion in Heavy-Duty Engines2019-01-219212/19/2019
ABSTRACT The introduction of renewable alcohols as fuels for heavy-duty engines may play a relevant role for the reduction of the carbon footprint of the transport sector. The direct injection of ethanol as main fuel and diesel as pilot fuel in the engine combustion chamber through two separate injectors may allow good combustion controllability over the entire engine operating range by targeting diffusive combustion. Closed-cycle combustion simulations have been carried out using AVL FIRE coupled to AVL TABKIN for the implementation of the Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM) chemistry reduction technique in order to investigate the influence of the injection system geometry and the injection strategy of pure ethanol and diesel fuel on ignition characteristics and combustion at different operating conditions.
Giramondi, Nicola, Mihaescu, Mihai, Erlandsson, Anders Christiansen, Jäger, Anders
Considerations for Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Airborne ApplicationsAIR7765 (Current)11/18/2019
The scope of this joint EUROCAE/SAE report is to compile the considerations relating to airborne application of hydrogen fuel cells. This document provides a comprehensive analysis of the use of hydrogen as a fuel by describing its existing applications and the experience gained by exploiting fuel cells in sectors other than aviation. The use of hydrogen fuel cells in aircraft can help in meeting aviation environmental targets (including noise pollution) and can be vital to achieving efficient electrically propelled air vehicles. The experience gained with mature fuel cells in terrestrial applications and the handling of other gases in aviation, as presented herein, will help in alleviating safety concerns and in demystifying the usage of hydrogen in aviation.
AE-7F Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
Comparison of Long-Chain Alcohol Blends, HVO and Diesel on Spray Characteristics, Ignition and Soot Formation2019-01-00181/15/2019
Spray characteristics of fossil Diesel fuel, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) and two oxygenated fuel blends were studied to elucidate the combustion process. The fuels were studied in an optically accessible high-pressure/high-temperature chamber under non-combusting (623 K, 4.69 MPa) and combusting (823 K, 6.04 MPa) conditions. The fuel blends contained the long-chain alcohol 2-ethylhexanol (EH), HVO and either 20 vol.% Diesel or 7 vol.% rapeseed methyl ester (RME) and were designed to have a Diesel-like cetane number (CN). Injection pressures were set to 120 MPa and 180 MPa and the gas density was held constant at 26 kg/m3. Under non-combusting conditions, shadow imaging revealed the penetration length of the liquid and vapor phase of the spray. Under combusting conditions, the lift-off length and soot volume fraction were measured by simultaneously recording time-resolved two-dimensional laser extinction, flame luminosity and OH* chemiluminescence images. The ignition delay and start of soot formation were also recorded. Under non-combusting conditions at both injection pressures, the liquid penetration length was higher for the blends and HVO compared to Diesel, whereas the vapor penetration length was similar for all fuels. Under combusting conditions, the liquid penetration length of all the tested fuels was similar. Despite different CNs, the ignition delay was similar for Diesel and HVO. The EH blends had an increased ignition delay compared to Diesel, despite having the same CN. The lift-off length was found to be highest for the blend containing the highest share of EH. In agreement with previously published scaling relations, the lift-off length increased with increasing injection pressure. The soot volume fraction was found to be lower for the blends, in agreement with engine studies.
Preuss, Josefine Kim, Munch, Karin, Andersson, Mats, Denbratt, Ingemar
OTHER expert voices19AUTP08_061/1/2019
Noted industry experts in Powertrain technologies shared their views on future propulsion trends during SAE's 2019 WCX panel, “Still Not Dead: The ICE's Continued Evolution,” moderated by Editor-in-Chief Lindsay Brooke. Some of those insights included: Dr. Uwe Grebe, executive VP, AVL: “Fuels have a significant role to play. I think there's potential to leverage greater efficiency in going to a higher octane number. Then there is discussion of the right utilization of renewables. I think going to synthetic fuels that are based on renewable energy is what we need to promote, because it takes the internal combustion engine out of the CO2 equation.”
Methodical Selection of Sustainable Fuels for High Performance Racing Engines2018-01-17499/10/2018
As the importance of sustainability increases and dominates the powertrain development within the automotive sector, this issue has to be addressed in motorsports as well. The development of sustainable high-performance fuels defined for the use in motorsports offers technical and environmental potential with the possibility to increase the sustainability of motorsports at the same or even a better performance level. At the moment race cars are predominantly powered by fossil fuels. However due to the emerging shift regarding the focus of the regulations towards high efficient powertrains during the last years the further development of the used fuels gained in importance. Moreover during the last decades a huge variety of sustainable fuels emerged that offer a range of different characteristics and that are produced based on waste materials or carbon dioxide. This study investigates the question of which sustainable fuels offer the characteristics suitable for high-performance race engines. Equivalents to gasoline, diesel and natural gas are examined separately in order to present the options with various engine concepts. The requirements for a high-performance fuel are defined based on experimental investigations emphasizing among other characteristics the importance of the knock resistance for gasoline-like fuels and the ignitability for diesel-like fuels. Furthermore the characteristics of the sustainable alternatives are analyzed. On the basis of the experimental results a comparison is carried out to match the fuel requirements with the characteristics and to select the optimal equivalent for fossil gasoline, diesel and natural gas. Moreover the sustainable fuels are evaluated with an environmental analysis including the fuel life cycle. The results show a potential to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions per mega joule energy content by up to 88%. This research assesses the broad variety of sustainable biologic and synthetic fuels concerning the potential use in motorsports and the resulting environmental benefits.
Schwarz, Lea, Bargende, Michael, Dreyer, Stefan, Baretzky, Ulrich, Kotauschek, Wolfgang, Wohlgemuth, Sebastian, Bach, Florian
Guidance on the Impact of Fuel Properties on Fuel System Design and OperationAIR7484 (Current)2/24/2018
This document describes a number of jet fuel properties and where applicable gives the specification limits for Jet A and Jet A-1, though the properties are generally applicable to all turbine fuels. Later versions of this document will give more details on specification limits for other similar fuels, such as TS-1, where they differ from Jet A and Jet-A1. It gives details about the possible impact on airframe fuel system design.
AE-5A Aerospace Fuel, Inerting and Lubrication Sys Committee
Alternative Automotive FuelsJ1297_201710 (Current)10/4/2017
This SAE Information Report provides information on certain fuels that are being used or have been suggested as alternatives to motor gasoline (SAE J312) or automotive diesel fuel (SAE J313) for use in spark-ignition or compression-ignition engines. Some of these fuels are derived from petroleum while others are from non petroleum sources.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 7 Fuels Committee
A Review on Second and Third Generation Bioethanol Production2016-36-051510/25/2016
In a scenario with growing population, increasing demand for energy and volatile prices of fossil fuel, there is a high incentive for the use of biofuels, especially those produced from waste material. In this context, second and third generation bioethanol (2G/3G) are interesting alternatives, as they can be produced from different raw material such as corn and rice straw, sugarcane bagasse, waste from pulp industry and microalgae. This paper presents an overview of the available technologies for both 2G and 3G bioethanol production, including lignocellulosic biomass feedstock, biocatalysts and cogeneration processes.
Teixeira, Ana Carolina Rodrigues, Sodré, José Ricardo, Guarieiro, Lilian Lefol Nani, Vieira, Erika Durão, de Medeiros, Fabiano Ferreira, Alves, Carine Tondo
Derived Cetane Number, Distillation and Ignition Delay Properties of Diesel and Jet Fuels Containing Blended Synthetic Paraffinic Mixtures2016-01-907610/24/2016
Aviation turbine fuel and diesel fuel were blended with synthetic paraffins produced via two pathways and the combustion properties measured. Both aviation and diesel fuel containing synthetics produced from the fermentation of sugars, had a linear response to blending with decreasing ignition delay times from 5.05 - 3.52 ms for F-34 and 3.84 - 3.52 ms for F-76. For the same fuels blended with synthetics produced from the fermentation of alcohols, ignition delay times were increased out to 18.66 ms. The derived cetane number of the blends followed an inversely similar trend. Additionally, simulated distillation using ASTM D2887 at high synthetic paraffinic kerosene blend ratios resulted in the recovery temperatures being incorrectly reported. In this case, higher recovery volumes were at lower temperatures than earlier recovery points i.e. T90< T50, for SIP-SPK.
Abanteriba, Sylvester, Yildirim, Ulas, Webster, Renee, Evans, David, Rawson, Paul
A Comparison of the Properties and Cold Flow Performance of ‘Summer’ and ‘Winter’ GTL Diesel2016-01-90745/18/2016
Gas to Liquids (GTL) diesel has been produced commercially for several years. GTL diesel is known for its excellent properties, including zero aromatics, near zero sulphur and a high cetane number. Most of the GTL diesel produced by commercial plants is utilised as a blend component, especially in blends up to 20%. In these applications, the cold flow properties are potentially less critical, as the cold flow properties of the blend will mostly be determined by the petroleum-derived component. In certain markets, however, it is possible that GTL diesel can be used as a neat diesel, therefore requiring good cold flow properties. An advantage of GTL technology is that the cold flow properties of GTL diesel can be tailored to meet the climatic requirements of a specific geographical area. In the current study, GTL diesel samples with cold flow properties ranging from ‘summer type’ to ‘winter type’ and varying intermediate cold flow qualities were evaluated. In line with expectations, it was shown that increasing the degree of isomerisation will improve the cold flow properties of the GTL diesel, whilst the other bulk properties such as density, cetane and viscosity of the fuels are not significantly altered. It is also shown that the excellent cold flow properties of these ‘winter type’ GTL fuels translate into excellent operability performance.
Wilken, Celeste, de Goede, Stefan, Viljoen, Carl
Plasma Extraction of Oxygen from the Martian AtmosphereTBMG-225468/1/2015
Extraction of oxygen from the abundant carbon dioxide present on Mars (96% atmospheric composition) is an important objective in preparation for missions to the planet. Oxygen is not only a fundamental reactant with high-specific-energy chemical fuels such as hydrogen and methane, but, along with water, it is arguably one of the most critical resources for life support. Using microwave plasma techniques to decompose CO2 into CO and O2, coupled with a technology to separate O2 as it is produced, a robotic processor located on the Martian surface would allow oxygen to be stockpiled for later use. Using innovative standing-wave microwave plasma reactor designs, ubiquitous 2.45-GHz microwave technology was employed to demonstrate 86% single-pass carbon dioxide decomposition.
Ignition Quality Effects on Lift-Off Stabilization of Synthetic Fuels2015-01-07924/14/2015
The ignition and flame stabilization characteristics of two synthetic fuels, having significantly different cetane numbers, are investigated in a constant volume combustion vessel over a range of ambient conditions representative of a compression ignition engine operating at variable loads. The synthetic fuel with a cetane number of 63 (S-1) is characterized by ignition delays that are only moderately longer than n-dodecane (cetane number of 87) over a range of ambient conditions. By comparison, the synthetic fuel with a cetane number of 17 (S-2) requires temperatures approximately 300 K higher to achieve the same ignition delays. The much different ignition characteristics and operating temperature range present a scenario where the lift-off stabilization may be substantially different. At temperatures below 1000 K, the S-2 fuel undergoes a long transient stabilization phase during which the lift-off location moves as much as 15 mm upstream (i.e., toward the injector orifice) after the ignition of the first flame kernel. This behavior is much different than S-1, n-dodecane, or with conventional diesel, in which past research shows that the lift-off location stabilizes very close to the ignition location shortly after the premixed burn. The longer ignition delays for S-2 frequently result in fuel-lean mixtures at the ignition location where the spray becomes over-mixed (i.e., too fuel-lean) and the high-temperature ignition event is noticeably less robust (i.e., smaller and less intense ignition kernels) as observed by high-speed chemiluminescence imaging. High-speed chemiluminescence imaging and pressure measurements show strong evidence of cool-flame (i.e., first-stage or low-temperature) reactions prior to high-temperature ignition for S-1 while they are less evident for S-2.
Lequien, Guillaume, Skeen, Scott, Manin, Julien, Pickett, Lyle M, Andersson, Oivind
Experimental Investigation of a DISI Production Engine Fuelled with Methanol, Ethanol, Butanol and ISO-Stoichiometric Alcohol Blends2015-01-07684/14/2015
Stricter CO2 and emissions regulations are pushing spark ignition engines more and more towards downsizing, enabled through direct injection and turbocharging. The advantages which come with direct injection, such as increased charge density and an elevated knock resistance, are even more pronounced when using low carbon number alcohols instead of gasoline. This is mainly due to the higher heat of vaporization and the lower air-to-fuel ratio of light alcohols such as methanol, ethanol and butanol. These alcohols are also attractive alternatives to gasoline because they can be produced from renewable resources. Because they are liquid, they can be easily stored in a vehicle. In this respect, the performance and engine-out emissions (NOx, CO, HC and PM) of methanol, ethanol and butanol were examined on a 4 cylinder 2.4 DI production engine and are compared with those on neat gasoline. Additionally, measurements were done for E85 and a methanol-gasoline blend with the same air-to-fuel ratio as E85 because this ‘iso-stoichiometric’ methanol-gasoline blend shows very few differences in physical properties to E85 and has the potential to be used as ‘drop-in’ fuel for flex-fuel vehicles. It is shown that the brake thermal efficiency when running on alcohol fuels is significantly better than with gasoline while emitting fewer emissions. In a knock limited case for gasoline, the brake thermal efficiency on methanol was more than 5 percentage points better than on gasoline. The engine test results also confirm that, from an engine control point of view, the ‘iso-stoichiometric’ methanol-gasoline blend can indeed be used as a ‘drop-in’ fuel for E85.
Sileghem, Louis, Ickes, Andrew, Wallner, Thomas, Verhelst, Sebastian
Laminar Flame Speed Characterization of Synthetic Gasoline Components2014-01-261610/13/2014
This paper investigated the laminar flame speed behavior of a matrix of ten spark-ignition fuels and fuel components using a spherical combustion bomb. The analysis methodology relied solely on the in-bomb pressure data. For each fuel measurements were performed at five different air-fuel ratios covering a mixture range from lean to rich. Six repeat combustion pressure traces were recorded for each air-fuel ratio, with each record containing approximately 90 data points. The entire sequence was performed at two initial temperatures resulting in a database of over 5000 individual calculations of laminar flame speed per fuel. A regression technique was employed to determine the relevant flame-speed parameters. The fuel matrix included synthetic and conventional crude-derived gasoline fuels as well as a selection of blend components that could be used in the formulation of synthetic gasoline. The laminar flame speed results were interpreted against standard fuel specification analyses as well as the molecular weights, RON, MON results and detailed chemical compositional analyses obtained with two-dimensional gas chromatography. Discernible differences were found in the laminar flame speed results of the test fuels. Furthermore the synthetic gasoline components revealed distinct laminar flame speed characteristics which suggested the potential for optimizing fuel formulations through the blending of synthetic fuel blends.
Rockstroh, Toby, Burger, Victor, Yates, Andy, Smit, Dylan
The Influence of Some Synthetic Fuels on the Performance and Emissions in a Wankel Engine2014-01-261110/13/2014
Nowadays, there is a permanent need to develop alternative fuel production and combustion technologies. The general objective indicated in Directive 2009/28/EC for biofuels in Poland is application in transport 10% of renewable energy by 2020 and 20% by 2030. In Poland, it can be achieved by adding bio-components to liquid fuels. Flexible fuel vehicles are not as popular in Europe as in Brazil, so further ethanol processing is justified. The researched synthetic gasoline was obtained from bioethanol at the Ekobenz Company Ltd. in Poland. In 2008, Sasol launched its 100% synthetic jet fuel produced by CTL (Coal to Liquids). A variety of engine concepts was tested and evaluated in terms of the key criteria for use as a range extender developed by AVL Company. The Wankel engine has been selected for the vehicle prototype as the most compact and of excellent NVH behaviour. The use of this engine in light helicopters is also considered. The paper describes the combustion results of a synthetic fuel produced from bioethanol in the ETG (Ethanol to Gasoline) process. This type of fuel is totally alternative as it has no petroleum additives. The influence of some second-generation biofuels on emissions, fuel consumption and the characteristics of the Wankel engine was described. The combustion results were compared with those of gasoline. The emission test results were also presented for different mixtures of synfuels and gasoline. The tested object was a low intake, 4-stroke XR50 Wankel engine.
Siadkowska, Ksenia, Wendeker, Miroslaw, Majczak, Adam, Baranski, Grzegorz, Szlachetka, Marcin
The Compatibility Study of Aircraft Fuel Tank Elastomers with Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosine and its Blends2014-01-90019/1/2014
The synthetic paraffinic kerosine (SPK) produced via HEFAs is of great interest for civil aviation industry as it exhibits an excellent thermal oxidative stability with significantly lower particulate matter emission. However, due to its aromatic free characteristics, the widespread use of SPK is limited by its compatibility with non-metal materials such as fuel tank elastomers. In this research the compatibility of SPK and its blends with widely used aircraft fuel tank elastomers were systematically studied. Experimental results demonstrated the volume swellability of all selected materials showed a linear relationship with volume percentage of No.3 jet fuel in SPK blend. The increase of volume percentage of No.3 jet fuel in the SPK blend increased volume swellability for all materials except fluorosilicone gasket. The alkyl benzenes and naphthalenes in the blend acted as the hydrogen donors, which facilitated the formation of polymer matrix and led to the increase of the distance between polymer chains. The poor volume swellability of fluorosilicone gasket was attributed to material itself highly fluorinated and relatively inert characteristics. Experimental results verified the material swelling performance was not only related to fuel properties but also influenced by material properties. Material elongation and hardness were also evaluated after aging in SPK and its blends at specified temperature for certain amount of time. Moreover, experimental results showed that the fuel properties were also impacted by the material used for fuel transportation. The synthetic rubber seal cap of storage can may cause high halogen content in the SPK and its blends.
Chen, Kai
Effects of Gasoline and Ethanol Fuel Corrosion Inhibitors and Fuel Detergents on Powertrain Intake Valve Deposits2014-01-13834/1/2014
Corrosion inhibitors (CIs) have been used for years to protect the supply and distribution systems used for transportation of fuel from refineries. They are also used to buffer the potential organic acids present in an ethanol blended fuel to enhance storage stability. The impact of the types of inhibitors on spark-ignition engine fuel systems, specifically intake valve deposits, is known and presented in open literature. However, the relationship of the corrosion inhibitors to the powertrain intake valve deposit performance is not understood. This paper has two purposes: to present and discuss a survey of corrosion inhibitors and how they vary in concentration in the final blended fuel, specifically E85 (Ethanol Fuel Blends); and to show how variation in concentration of components of CIs and detergents impact intake valve deposit formation. Commercially available corrosion inhibitor packages and detergent packages for both gasoline and ethanol blended fuels, specifically E85 fuels (Ethanol Fuel Blends), were studied for their impact on intake valve deposit formation in a naturally aspirated port fuel injection (PFI) engine.
Chapman, Elana, Cummings, Jill, Winston-Galant, Mark
Economics of Transportation Hydrocarbon Fuels and Environmental Regulations with Conceptual Solutions - Carbon-Neutral and Carbon-Negative Synfuels2014-01-19434/1/2014
Of all current proposals for sustainable transportation, the assumption is energy scarcity when there are economically favorable alternatives using existing technology. This paper explores the economics of a sustainable transportation energy pathway that provides carbon-neutral and carbon-negative synthetic fuel derived from seawater as the feedstock and power via Ocean Thermal Energy Cycle (OTEC). Seawater-based synthetic fuel is naturally carbon-neutral - different synthesis processes can yield hydrogen, methane, methanol and ethanol as well as gasoline, diesel or jet fuel - and is carbon-negative when combined with aquaculture. Methanol is favored as a fuel as it requires relatively lower capital investment; can be easily transported and stored; can be used as a feedstock to many chemical processes that currently rely on petrochemicals; and can be coproduced with or converted to dimethyl ether. This paper proposes a new process that for the first time marries OTEC-power and seawater-based-methanol synthetic fuel generation. The proposed process is optimized for highest product yield for a given capital investment, in that operating costs and therefore product costs are dominated by capital cost amortization. The methanol fuel produced by this process within the amortization period has a cost per unit of energy potentially comparable to petroleum-derived gasoline or diesel fuel and post-amortization to natural gas. The economics of this new process is compared to prior synthetic methanol processes proposed by Meyer Steinberg and William Avery.
Bucknell, John R.
Effect of POMDME Blend on PAH Emissions and Particulate Size Distribution from an In-Use Light-Duty Diesel Engine2014-01-19514/1/2014
Polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether (POMDME) is a synthetic fuel from alternative energy sources, which can be blended in any ratio with petroleum diesel fuel. The regulated and non-regulated emissions, especially polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and particle number size distribution (PNSD), from an old Euro-3 diesel engine fueled with a 7,5% blend of POMDME in commercial diesel fuel were measured and compared to the base diesel fuel, after adjusting exhaust gas ratio (EGR) in order to match the level of NOx emission. The experimental results show a significant reduction in soot and particulate matter (PM) emissions. The number of particles smaller than 30 nm is slightly increased at low speed and low load operating conditions, while at high speed the number concentration of particles larger than 30 nm is reduced. The PAH emissions were found higher for the oxygenated fuel blend than for the base fuel. This result is consistent with the exhaust gas temperature profiles during the PAH sampling which suggest that the oxidation catalyst might have a slightly lower catalytic activity when using this oxygenated fuel.
Pellegrini, Leonardo, Patrini, Renata, Marchionna, Mario
Investigation of Fuel Atomization and Evaporation of a DISI Injector Spray Under Homogeneous Charge Conditions2013-01-15974/8/2013
Understanding the causal loop from injection to combustion in modern direct injection engines is essential to improve combustion and reduce emissions. In this work, the section from injection to fuel-evaporation in this causal loop was investigated using different optical measurement techniques, with a focus on drop size measurements using Phase Doppler Anemometry (PDA). One spray jet of a modern DISI multi-hole injector was investigated using gasoline RON 95 fuel and two single component alkane fuels (n-hexane / n-decane). In a first step the macroscopic spray formation and propagation of this spray jet were studied using a 2D-Mie-scattering technique in an optical injection chamber at homogenous charge DISI conditions. Furthermore, the droplet size distribution and mean diameter were determined spatially and temporally resolved for an ambient pressure of 0.3MPa and different ambient temperature (323K / 423K / 523K) conditions in the optical chamber using Phase Doppler Anemometry. For an ambient temperature of 323K, the influence of the Reynolds number on the atomization process was studied under non-evaporating conditions showing an almost linear decrease in mean diameter versus logarithmic Reynolds number. This work demonstrates that knowledge of the drop size distribution at different positions in a gasoline spray under modern charged conditions is not enough to determine an evaporation ratio, i.e. evaporated mass vs. penetration depth. However, it was possible to determine the influence of the ambient temperature on the drop size and drop size distribution at a fixed measurement position and to estimate an evaporated mass as a function of the ambient gas temperature.
Heldmann, Markus, Knorsch, Tobias, Wensing, Michael
A Comparison of Combustion and Emissions of Diesel Fuels and Oxygenated Fuels in a Modern DI Diesel Engine2012-01-16959/10/2012
Two oxygenated fuels were evaluated on a single-cylinder diesel engine and compared to three hydrocarbon diesel fuels. The oxygenated fuels included canola biodiesel (canola methyl esters, CME) and CME blended with dibutyl succinate (DBS), both of which are or have the potential to be bio-derived. DBS was added to improve the cold flow properties, but also reduced the cetane number and net heating value of the resulting blend. A 60-40 blend of the two (60% vol CME and 40% vol DBS) provided desirable cold flow benefits while staying above the U.S. minimum cetane number requirement. Contrary to prior vehicle test results and numerous literature reports, single-cylinder engine testing of both CME and the 60-40 blend showed no statistically discernable change in NOx emissions relative to diesel fuel, but only when constant intake oxygen was maintained. The increased NOx emissions typically reported for oxygenated fuels are believed to be largely due to two factors: 1) the method used to control Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR), which is typically based on air mass or EGR rate rather than intake oxygen concentration, and 2) the shift in calibration set points (e.g., EGR, boost pressure, etc.) that result from the increased pedal demand needed to achieve the same torque with oxygenated fuels, due to their lower energy content. When compared at constant intake oxygen, results for NOx emissions, combustion noise and thermal efficiency were similar between the diesel fuels and the oxygenated fuels tested. A substantial reduction in particulate matter (PM) emissions was observed with both oxygenated fuels (91% reduction with CME and 97% reduction with 60-40 blend on average over various operating conditions), which was attributed to the respective oxygen content of those two fuels and its effect on the average oxygen equivalence ratio at the lift-off length. Elevated hydrocarbon emissions were initially observed with the 60-40 blend and were attributed to poor pilot burn caused by the combination of that fuel's low cetane number and low energy content. When the injection quantities of both the pilot and main injections were adjusted to compensate for energy content, the hydrocarbon emissions were reduced to a level similar to that of the other fuels tested. Under Low Temperature Combustion (LTC), fuel-related effects appeared to track with the cetane number and were relatively insensitive to fuel oxygen content.
Kurtz, Eric M., Kuhel, Douglas, Anderson, James E., Mueller, Sherry A.
Onboard Optimisation of Engine Emissions and Consumption According to Diesel Fuel Quality2012-01-16949/10/2012
In response to the demand to lower CO2 emission, all engine developers face the challenge of drastically reducing fuel consumption. At the same time, they will need to meet future exhaust emission legislation by simultaneously employing internal measures and after treatment systems. Additionally, they will have to deal with increasing fuel variability. As different properties can lead to very different behavior in engine operation, information onboard the vehicle providing the fuel composition would allow to adjust engine operating parameters accordingly, to make the most beneficial use of the available fuel quality. This will be obvious considering future diesel fuels blends, or the ever increasing amount of biodiesel content mixed into Diesel fuel, but could already be interesting considering existing fuel variability faced in Europe or America. In this context, an innovative Fuel Quality Sensor technology [1] [2] has been developed: it provides detailed information about the molecular structure of the diesel fuel flowing to the engine as well as its biodiesel content. In the context of the presented study, a matrix of 10 diesel fuels representative of real world fuel variability and including future trends in biodiesel introduction has been prepared, and systematically tested on a modern single cylinder engine, with a fully flexible engine parameters management. First step was to test all fuels with basic Engine Control Unit (ECU) settings optimized for EN590 fuel, showing the impact of fuel variability on engine emissions and specific fuel consumption. Second step was to investigate influence of several engine parameter (pilot and main injection, EGR rate, …) in order to understand the ways to optimise ECU settings for each fuel blend. The final step will be a compensating algorithm, enabling the engine to run different fuel qualities with optimized emissions, fuel consumption and running behavior, using information from the Fuel Quality Sensor.
Hermitte, Eric, Lunati, Alain, Delebinski, Thaddaeus
Changing How We Fly Aviation Technology Today and TomorrowTBMG-139716/1/2012
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) reported that last year, U.S. and foreign air carriers transported an estimated 161.8 million passengers between the United States and the rest of the world. The FAA estimates there will be one billion passengers in 2024. So how does the aviation industry handle the prospect of a billion passengers with rising fuel prices, crowded airspace, out-dated systems, and increasing environmental concerns? The answer is new technology that is both in use today, and on the horizon for air travel tomorrow.
The Ignition Behavior of a Coal to Liquid Fischer-Tropsch Jet Fuel in a Military Relevant Single Cylinder Diesel Engine2012-01-11974/16/2012
The U.S. Army currently uses JP-8 for global operations according to the "one fuel forward policy" that was enacted almost twenty years ago in order to help reduce the logistics burden of supplying a variety of fuels for given Department of Defense vehicle and base applications. One particular challenge with using global JP-8 is the lack of or too broad a range of specified combustion and fuel system affecting properties including ignition quality, high temperature viscosity, and lubricity. In addition to these challenges, the JP-8 fuel specification currently allows the use of blending with certain types of synthetic jet fuels up to 50% by volume. This blended fuel also doesn't include an ignition quality or high temperature viscosity specification, but does include a lubricity specification that is much less restrictive than DF-2. One particular currently available synthetic fuel that could be used as a blending agent with JP-8 is produced by Sasol for use in South Africa and is a Fischer-Tropsch's (FT) coal-to-liquid (CTL) aviation fuel that has poor ignition quality (25 cetane number and 52 cetane index) and is more volatile than JP-8. A series of single-cylinder experiments were conducted using the Sasol jet fuel in order to study its ignition behavior over a range of relevant military diesel engine operating conditions. In particular, mean ignition combustion chamber densities of 18, 24, and 30 kg/m₃ were explored over a mean ignition temperature range of 780 to 1000 K. Additional evaluation of this fuel and a 50-50 blend of this fuel with JP-8 was conducted by performing modal testing at high, medium, and low load conditions representative of a military medium-duty truck engine. A comparison of the ignition behavior of this fuel to higher ignition quality fuels showed that the Sasol jet fuel behaved similar (within 20%) to a higher cetane number fuel over a considerable portion of the mean ignition density and temperature range, but also exhibited poor ignition quality behavior in various lower mean ignition temperature and density regimes. Additionally, blending the Sasol jet fuel in a 50-50 volumetric proportion with a typical JP-8 significantly impacted the ignition and heat release profile behavior at medium and light load operating conditions alleviating part of the poor ignition quality concern of using unblended Sasol jet fuel. These results are highly sensitive to the initial injection rate and thus are a strong function of the fuel system which was a hydraulically actuated electronically controlled unit system in this study that inherently has a more gradual initial injection rate in comparison to high pressure common rail systems.
Schihl, Peter, Hoogterp-Decker, Laura, Gingrich, Eric
Soot Volume Fraction and Morphology of Conventional, Fischer-Tropsch, Coal-Derived, and Surrogate Fuel at Diesel Conditions2012-01-06784/16/2012
Future fuels will come from a variety of feed stocks and refinement processes. Understanding the fundamentals of combustion and pollutants formation of these fuels will help clear hurdles in developing flex-fuel combustors. To this end, we investigated the combustion, soot formation, and soot oxidation processes for various classes of fuels, each with distinct physical properties and molecular structures. The fuels considered include: conventional No. 2 diesel (D2), low-aromatics jet fuel (JC), world-average jet fuel (JW), Fischer-Tropsch synthetic fuel (JS), coal-derived fuel (JP), and a two-component surrogate fuel (SR). Fuel sprays were injected into high-temperature, high-pressure ambient conditions that were representative of a practical diesel engine. Simultaneous laser extinction measurement and planar laser-induced incandescence imaging were performed to derive the in-situ soot volume fraction. From experiments, it was found that fuels with long lift-off length generally produce less soot but fuel molecular structure also affects soot formation. For instance, JP fuel with the longest lift-off length among tested fuels showed higher soot than JS because of higher cycloparaffinic content. Attributed to variations in both lift-off length and molecular structure, the level of total soot within the fuels jet in decreasing order was D2=SR≻JW≻JP≻JC≻JS. Further details of the soot processes were clarified by sampling the soot particles from within the reacting jet by means of a thermophoretic probe, with subsequent analysis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Analyzed TEM images of soot particles showed a marked variation in the soot particle structures depending on the fuel type and were consistent with the soot volume fraction trend.
Kook, Sanghoon, Pickett, Lyle M.
Jet Reference Fluid Study for Fuel Tank SealantsAIR4275A (Historical)1/17/2012
Standard reference fluids, or test fluids, have long been used to evaluate the effects of hydrocarbon fuels on various materials, such as integral fuel tank sealants. Standard fluids are required because hydrocarbon fuels, such as JP-4, vary widely in composition depending on crude source, refining techniques, and other factors. To ensure reliable and reproducible results when determining the fuel resistance of materials, reference fluids of known composition, using worst case fuel compositions, are used. The current Jet Reference Fluid (JRF) called out in military sealant specifications was developed in the mid-1950s specifically as a JP-4 type test fluid formulation to be used for the accelerated laboratory testing of integral fuel tank sealants. In August 1978, chalking of the polysulfide sealant in integral fuel tanks of some new aircraft at Edwards Air Force Base in California was discovered after only 1 year of service. Although chalking of polysulfide sealants had been observed occasionally in the past, the rate of chalking was unprecedented. The results of an investigation showed that the rapid chalking of the polysulfide sealant was caused by a chemical reaction involving metal ions (copper, cadmium, lead, and iron) and mercaptan sulfur in the fuel. It was also noted that qualification testing of the sealant used had not predicted the chalking that occurred in service. Further investigation disclosed that the sealant had passed the chalking test in the military specification because the JRF used in the specifications chalking test did not contain trace metal ions as did the fuel removed from the tanks of the affected aircraft. The special Air Force investigating team included in its final report a recommendation that the JRF specification be reviewed and revised. The above chalking incident coupled with concerns resulting from deficiencies observed with the current JRF, and from changing sources of JP-4 indicated that an update of the JRF formulation in the sealant specifications was needed. A proposal was made to the SAE Aerospace Sealing Committee (G-9) which then formed a subcommittee for the development of a new Jet Reference Fluid (JRF) for evaluation of integral fuel tank sealants with Mr. W. F. Anspach as its chairman. The subcommittee members were:
AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee
Gaseous and Particle Emissions from a Turbo-Jet Engine Operating on Alternative Fuels at Simulated Altitudes2011-01-259710/18/2011
Gaseous and particle emission assessments on a 1.15 kN-thrust turbojet engine were conducted at five altitudes in an altitude chamber with Jet A-1 fuel, pure Fischer Tropsch (FT), and two mixed fuels of JP-8 with FT or Camelina-based hydro-processed jet fuels. In general, lower emissions in CO₂, NOx, and particle number as well as higher emissions in CO and THC were observed at higher altitudes compared to lower altitudes. These observations, which were similar for all test fuels, were attributed to the reduced combustion efficiency and temperature at higher altitudes. The use of alternative fuels resulted in lower CO₂ emissions, ranging from 0.7% to 1.7% for 50% to 100% synthetic fuel in the fuel mixture at various altitudes. In terms of CO, the use of 100% FT fuel resulted in CO reduction up to 9.7% at 1525 m altitude and up to 5.9% at 9145 m altitude. Significant reduction in particle diameter, number and mass emission rates were observed with the use of alternative fuels due to the low aromatic and sulfur content in the fuels. Higher reductions were observed for increasing percentage of the alternative synthetic fuel in the fuel mixture. With the use of pure FT fuel, up to 80% and 96% reductions in particle number emissions were observed at 1525 m and 9145 m altitudes, respectively. In comparison, a larger particle reduction benefit was observed for the Camelina-based hydro-processed jet fuel than for the FT fuel.
Chan, Tak W., Cuddihy, Kevin, Chishty, Wajid, Davison, Craig, McCurdy, Mark, Barton, Peter
Selection of the Most Promising Alternative Fuels for Aircraft Development: ALFA-BIRD Proposal2011-01-279110/18/2011
Air traffic has been steadily increasing for the last years. Moreover, fuel availability at a reasonable cost seems more and more uncertain. Climate change implies that greenhouse gases emissions should be reduced. In this context, the search for new alternative fuels for aircraft seems to be a promising solution. Nevertheless, aeronautic represents a very specific transportation mode, due to its usage (short range, middle range, long range with the same fuel, worldwide distribution of the fuel…) and its compulsory security constraints. In the first part of the European project ALFA-BIRD (Alternative Fuels and Biofuels for Aircraft development - FP7), a selection of the best candidates to become the fuels for the future of aircraft has been done. The selection process was very complex, due to multiple criteria (physical properties, economical issued, environmental issues…). A first matrix of 12 blends has been defined including: FSJF (Fully Synthetic Jet Fuel), FT-SPK (Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene), Naphthenic cut, HVO (Hydrotreated Vegetable Oils), hexanol, furane and FAE (Fatty Acid Esters) in different amounts. The FSJF consists of 50% FT-SPK and 50% of severely hydrogenated coal tar kerosene. FT-SPK and HVO are paraffinic compounds. FT-SPK fuels are well known products and a huge work has already been done to certify this product, leading to ASTM D7566. Moreover, there is a strong potential in term of availability due to multiple sources (Biomass, Coal, Gas, Waste). HVO displays chemical composition and physical properties close to FT-SPK ones, but their certification for aircraft use is still under discussion in May 2011 and could lead to a standardization before the end of the year. The naphthenic compounds represent products that come from direct liquefaction/pyrolysis of coal or biomass. Concerning the oxygenated compounds, the study of their potential use in aeronautics is very original and can be considered as a long-term view. This first fuel matrix of 12 blends were evaluated following the standard jet fuel characterization. Thanks to this first study, 4 fuels were pointed out : FSJF, FT-SPK, a blend of FT-SPK and 50% naphthenic cut, and a blend of FT-SPK and 20% hexanol. This fuel matrix allows evaluating the potential of several chemical families: paraffinic, naphthenic and oxygenated compounds. This is also representative of a short, middle, and long term views. These 4 fuels will be deeply evaluated in term of combustion, material compatibility, stability during the second part of the ALFA-BIRD project.
Pidol, Ludivine, Starck, Laurie, Jeuland, Nicolas, Allouche, Yohan
Interrogating the surface: the effect of blended diesel fuels on lubricity2011-01-19408/30/2011
The lubricating properties of two sustainable alternative diesels blended with ultra low sulphur diesel (ULSD) were investigated. The candidate fuels were a biodiesel consisting of fatty acid methyl esters derived from rapeseed (RME) and gas-to-liquid (GTL). Lubricity tests were conducted on a high frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR). The mating specimen surfaces were analysed using optical microscopy and profilometery for wear scar diameters and profiles respectively. Microscopic surface topography and deposit composition was evaluated using a scanning electronic microscope (SEM) with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). Like all modern zero sulphur diesel fuel (ZSD), GTL fuels need a lubricity agent to meet modern lubricity specifications. It has been proven that GTL responds well to typical lubricity additives in the marketplace. The lubricity of ULSD, GTL and blends of these fuels were significantly improved with the addition of as little as 10% volume of RME, inducing more stable hydrodynamic conditions. Topography measurements showed the formation of a residue when RME was blended in the base fuels and composition analysis indicated a predominately carbon formation on the worn surfaces that correlated with wear scar diameters. On the other hand, the test disc under GTL lubrication showed the smooth and residue free surface. The optimal proportion of blended fuel that created the smallest wear scar diameter was 70% GTL, 20% ULSD and 10% RME.
Sukjit, Ekarong, Dearn, Karl D., Tsolakis, Athanasios
Determination Of Mixture Of Methanol And Ethanol Blends In Gasoline Fuels Using A Miniaturized NIR Flex Fuel Sensor2011-01-19888/30/2011
Based on their 25 world-wide years experience in refining and fuel formulation using Near Infrared technology, the SP3H team has developed an innovative and miniaturized optical fuel quality sensor. The sensor output is based on an HCP matrix (HydroCarbon Profilers) and provides information on the fine chemistry of fuels such as aromatics, olefins, isoparaffins and oxygenates content and information related to the lengths of the Carbon-Carbon Chain. The goal of this study is to answer the need for new flex-fuel sensors able to provide the rate and the type of oxygenates used in different mixtures of binary and ternary blends of methanol, ethanol and gasoline for the emerging markets. This paper presents the results of the models and the accuracy of the optical sensor for the determination and prediction of Methanol-Ethanol-gasoline mixtures based on the HCP approach.
Lunati, Alain, Galtier, Oswin
Aerospace Engineering 2011-06-0811AERD06086/8/2011
Avionics go to war Advanced helmet sight systems are being designed to help the situational awareness of those pilots who actually still fly aircraft, while also being seamlessly integrated with the aircraft itself. Model military engine behavior While the concept of a variable cycle engine is not new, recent advances in engine architecture technology suggest that adding a second bypass stream to a traditional turbofan can provide significant benefits. Alternative seals for alternative fuels When considering seal compatibility an aircraft from traditional jet fuel to a synthetic fuel presents an interesting technical challenge that has both financial and practical considerations, especially for aircraft that are already in service.
High Cetane Fuel Combustion Performance in a Conventional Military Diesel Engine2011-01-03344/12/2011
Synthetic diesel fuels from Fischer-Tropsch or hydrotreating processes have high cetane numbers with respect to conventional diesel fuel. This study investigates diesel combustion characteristics with these high cetane fuels. A military jet fuel (JP-5 specification), a Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthetic diesel, and normal hexadecane (C16), a pure component fuel with defined cetane number of 100, are compared with operation of conventional military diesel fuel (F-76 specification). The fuels are tested in a AM General GEP HMMWV engine, an indirect-injection, largely mechanically-controlled diesel engine. Hundreds of thousands of these are in current use and are projected to be in service for many years to come. Experimental testing showed that satisfactory operation could be achieved across the speed-load operating map even for the highest cetane fuel (normal hexadecane). The JP-5, FT, and C16 fuels all showed later injection timing. Despite having a significantly higher cetane number, the FT fuel showed a longer ignition delay, probably due to the lower density of this synthetic fuel, which leads to slower penetration into the chamber. Thus, ignition delay was not found to correlate directly with cetane number, and fuel density effects were able to counteract the much higher cetane number of the FT fuel. Peak pressure was lower with JP-5, FT, and C16, relative to diesel, due to both differences in ignition delay and combustion duration. BMEP with the JP-5, FT, and C16 changed little relative to diesel, but was reduced with FT operation (10-20%) in the high-speed, low-load region of the operating map. BSFC was improved for JP-5 and C16 (approximately 5%), but slightly worse for FT fuel (approximately 5%) particularly in the high-speed, low-load region.
Cowart, Jim, Carr, Matthew, Caton, Pat, Stoulig, Lars, Luning-Prak, Dianne, Moore, Andrew, Hamilton, Leonard
Binary Mixtures of Branched and Aromatic Pure Component Fuels as Surrogates for Future Diesel Fuels2010-01-218810/25/2010
Future synthetic diesel fuels will likely involve mixtures of straight and branched alkanes, possibly with aromatic additives to improve lubricity and durability. To simulate these future fuels, this study examined the combustion characteristics of binary mixtures of 50%, 70%, and 90% isododecane in hexadecane, and of 50%, 70%, and 80% toluene in hexadecane using a single-cylinder research diesel engine with variable injection timing. These binary blends were also compared to operation with commercial petroleum diesel fuel, military petroleum jet fuel, and five current synthetic Fischer-Tropsch diesel and jet fuels. The synthetic diesel and jet fuels showed reasonable similarity with many of the combustion metrics to mid-range blends of isododecane in hexadecane. Stable diesel combustion was possible even with the 80% toluene and 90% isododecane blends; in fact, operation with 100% isododecane was achieved, although with significantly advanced injection timing. As the concentration of toluene in hexadecane increased, combustion was either stable or progressed quickly to misfire; 80% toluene in hexadecane resulted in stable combustion but 85% toluene blends did not combust at all. With either blend, there was not a progressive change in peak pressure, maximum rate of pressure rise, or combustion phasing leading to extreme values. Instead, only modest changes in these metrics occur as blend fraction changes across a wide range. Increasing blend fraction of either component does steadily increase ignition delay, although 50% mixtures of either component cause only a modest change in ignition delay. Increasing blend fraction also increases the amount of fuel consumed in the rapid premixed combustion phase, although estimation of this fraction showed that it increases even more slowly than ignition delay with increasing concentration. Only when ignition delay is longer than approximately 1.8 ms does the amount of energy released from the premixed-phase burn show significant increase. The increasing fraction of the branched or aromatic component causes changes to the mixture properties that can reduce the rate of entrainment and mixing in the diesel jet, partially compensating for small increases in ignition delay. Mixture properties for each blend were measured using standardized testing procedures, including tests for density, viscosity, surface tension, and cetane number. The results suggest that blends of up to 50% of branched or aromatic components could be utilized in a diesel engine with only modest impact to combustion characteristics or performance metrics; higher concentrations may be utilized with increasing effects.
Mathes, Andrew, Ries, Jacob, Caton, Patrick, Cowart, Jim, Luning Prak, Dianne, Hamilton, Leonard
Evaluation of Fischer-Tropsch Fuel Performance in Advanced Diesel Common Rail FIE2010-01-219110/25/2010
An increasing range of conventional and unconventional feed stocks will be used to produce fuel of varying chemical and physical properties for use in compression ignition engines. Fischer-Tropsh (F-T) technology can be used to produce fuels of consistent quality from a wide range of feed stocks. The present study evaluates the performance of F-T fuel in advanced common rail fuel injection systems. Laboratory scale tests are combined with proprietary engine and electrically driven common rail pump hydraulic rig tests to predict long-term performance. The results obtained indicate that the performance of F-T fuel is at least comparable to conventional hydrocarbon fuels and superior in a number of areas. In particular, the lubricity of F-T fuel was improved by addition of lubricity additives or FAME, with minimal wear under a wide range of operating conditions and temperatures. No deposits or lacquer was produced on fuel injection system components; even under relatively severe operating conditions.
Lacey, Paul, Kientz, Jean Marc, Gail, Sandro, Milovanovic, Nebojsa, Stevenson, Paul, Stradling, Richard, Clark, Richard H., Boonwatsakul, Ratchatapong
Properties of Butanol-Biodiesel-ULSD Ternary Mixtures2010-01-213310/25/2010
The use of butanol as an alternative biofuel blend component for conventional diesel fuel has been under extensive investigation. However, some fuel properties such as cetane number and lubricity fall below the accepted values as described by the ASTM D 975 diesel specifications. Blending 10% butanol with #2 ULSD decreases the cetane number by 7% (from 41.6 to 39.0). At higher butanol blend levels, i.e., 20% v/v, the cetane number decrease cannot be compensated for; even with the addition of a 2000 ppm level commercial cetane improver. The decreased cetane number, or in other words, increased ignition delay, can be attributed to the increased blend level of low cetane butanol as well as the critical physical properties for better atomization of fuels during auto ignition such as viscosity. The kinematic viscosity dropped sharply with increasing butanol blend level up to 25 % v/v, then increased with further increase of butanol blend level. Also, the addition of butanol decreases the lubricity properties of conventional diesel. Interestingly, blending biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters) with butanol-diesel mixtures restores the required properties of diesel fuel for compression ignition. In this study, biodiesel and butanol were blended with commercial diesel fuel at different ternary mixture compositions to characterize the key fuel properties of the blends such as cetane number, viscosity, lubricity, flash point and cold filter plugging point. An optimum ternary mixture of biodiesel-butanol-diesel will be developed based on the physical properties which can be used in CI engines without altering engine parameters or the addition of performance enhancers. In addition the feasibility of using green diesel (hydrotreated animal fats) as a matrix for butanol blending was also investigated.
Wadumesthrige, Kapila, Ng, K. Y. Simon, Salley, Steven O.
The influence of lubricity (HFRR) and cetane number (CN) in diesel engines for military application with use of combinations of fuels (QAV1/DIESEL/BIODIESEL)2010-36-038310/6/2010
In military operations always search the availability of equipment in adverse situations. The flexibility of operating on alternative fuels becomes every day a real need to be sought by all manufacturers who to provide for this segment of market. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the use of mixtures of jet fuel (QAV-1) + diesel and Biodiesel in the operation of diesel engines monitoring the parameters lubricity HFRR (High Frequency Reciprocating Rig) and cetane number fuel and also performance parameters. For this study, was used a diesel engine of 279 kW applied on a dynamometer. For lubricity was used the method HFRR according to the standard ASTM D6079 and for cetane number the results were obtained using ASTM D613. The results contributed to a better understanding of the physical-chemical properties of fuels tested and their contributions to the operation of diesel engines.
de Matos, Torres e Rodrigues Diogo, Bonfim, Osvaldo Luiz, Bueno, Willian Florentino, Zanchet, Walter, Louzada, Adiel Paes
An Experimental Strategy for the Manufacture of Aviation Fuel2010-01-18789/28/2010
Air travel has continued to increase dramatically and all indications are that the rapid rate, approximately 4% per annum, will continue into the foreseeable future. One major barrier to this growth is related to fuel. There exist major technical challenges in supplying fuels and in reducing exhaust pollutants. Transport propulsion is dependent on limited sources, mainly fossil fuels, which have a peak production predicted to be around 2005, and crude oil sources are limited and will eventually run out. Commercial air transport is responsible for around 700 million tons of jet-fuel derived CO₂ today, about 2.31% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide, future forecasts of aviation growth show CO₂ emissions from the sector rising rapidly and inexorably to more than 1 billion tons by 2025 and this is unlikely to be acceptable. The future rate of gains in 15-20% aviation fuel efficiency (excluding dramatic improvement in fuel efficiency since the first commercial turbine aircraft which entered service in the 1960s) is not sufficient, nor likely to be matched into the future, to offset the growth rate of air travel (about 5.3% per year between 2000 and 2007, resulting in an increase of passenger traffic of 38%) particularly as many of the relatively easy technical improvements have already been incorporated. Any growth in air travel will lead to higher fuel demand. This will require the problem of meeting fuel requirements to be addressed including crude oil availability and cost, oil security, and concerns about global warming and climate change. For the growth of air travel to continue fuel alternates for aviation have to be found. Biokerosene manufactured from vegetable oils is expected to have similar properties to conventional kerosene. The fuel is one of the candidates for aviation fuels due to its renewability and its availability, and its ability to mix with the traditional fuel. The source of materials for these is more widely, and thus reliably available when compared with their fossilized counterparts. Vegetable oils consist of long-chain fatty acid alkyl esters organic compounds and can be derived from a broad variety of renewable resources such as soybean, grape, jatropha, and algae oils. The oils have high viscosity, high freezing points, poor thermal stability compared to conventional kerosene, at this state, the oils cannot be viable fuels for aviation. Therefore, the sources of fuels need to be converted into biokerosene through techniques like pyrolysis and hydrodeoxygenation. This paper gives an overview of alternative aviation fuel applications, the production of biokerosene aviation fuels, and outlines the first stage of our efforts to develop an experimental strategy for the manufacture of biokerosene from vegetable oil sources by pyrolysis that could presents a solution to the fuel shortage in the future.
Xuan Phuong, Pham
Performance, Durability, and Stability of a Power Generator Fueled with ULSD, S-8, JP-8, and Biodiesel2010-01-06364/12/2010
The feasibility of using ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD), synthetic paraffinic kerosene (S-8), military grade jet fuel (JP-8) and commercial B20 blend (20% v biodiesel in ULSD) in a power generator equipped with a compression ignition (CI) engine was investigated according to the MIL-STD-705C military specifications for engine-driven generator sets. Several properties of these fuels such as cetane number, lubricity, viscosity, cold flow properties, heat of combustion, distillation temperatures, and flash point, were evaluated. All fuels were tested for 240 hours at a stationary load of 30 kW (60% of full load) with no alteration to the engine calibrations. The brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake thermal efficiency (BTE), frequency, and power of the generator using S-8, JP-8 and B20 were compared with the baseline fuel ULSD. At a stationary load of 30 kW, S-8 produced the lowest BSFC of 0.267 ± 0.019 kg/kW-hr and the highest BTE of 0.309 ± 0.005 compared to 0.308 ± 0.001 BSFC and 0.287 ± 0.002 BTE for ULSD. The BTE of B20 was comparable to that of ULSD. Both ULSD and B20 showed the highest stability in the generator in terms of frequency and power. Out of the two aviation fuels tested, S-8 had the most unstable generator frequency and power due to its lower viscosity, while JP-8 had acceptable stability. These instabilities increased with increasing engine load. B20 tends to form a density gradient (phase separation) at low temperatures in which unsaturated FAMEs such as C16:0 and C18:0 crystallized and deposited at the bottom of the fuel tank. This crystallization process was completely reversible at elevated temperatures during the testing period, and conditions did not show any adverse effects on engine performance, such as fuel filter plugging. Analysis of lubricating oil after 240 hours of each fuel usage did not show any indication of wear in engine parts.
Wadumesthrige, Kapila, Johnson, Nicholas, Winston-Galant, Mark, Sattler, Eric, Bezaire, Noel, Zeng, Sidong, Salley, Steven, Ng, Ka Yuen
Tribological Evaluation of the Aviation Kerosene for Use in CI Engines2009-01-280411/2/2009
To reduce the fuel related logistic burden, NATO Armed Forces are advancing the use of a single fuel for both aircraft and ground equipment. To this end, F-34 is replacing distillate diesel fuel in many applications. Yet, unacceptable wear due to poor lubricity was illustrated by tests conducted with kerosene on High Frequency Reciprocating Rig. Therefore, HFRR tests were performed with fatty acid methyl esters of sunflower, palm, cotton-seed, tobacco-seed, olive, rape-seed and used frying oils, at volume concentrations from 0.05% to 0.6%. This study showed that the biodiesels used, produced a significant decrease in the wear scar diameter at concentrations of 0.2% to 0.4 %. Biodiesels derived from non-polyunsaturated oils, such as palm and olive gave better lubrication at certain concentrations.
Karonis, D., Anastopoulos, G.
Technical and Economical Feasibility of Biofuels for Engine Applications2009-24-00879/13/2009
Ever increasing number of vehicles in the world has led to increasing demand of fossil fuels. But the resources of fossil fuels are limited and those too are concentrated in some parts of the world. This crisis of petroleum fuels has motivated the researchers all over the world to look for alternative renewable fuels. This paper describes first generation biofuels i.e. Ethanol and Biodiesel, and their compatibility with existing internal combustion engines. This paper also reviews their economical comparison with petroleum fuels. In the next part, the paper describes second generation biofuels i.e. Lignocellulosic ethanol and Fischer-Tropsch diesel, their current status, and development needs to make them economically feasible.
Deshmukh, Abhishek Y.
Multi-Fuel PEM Fuel Cell Power Plant for Vehicles2009-01-10044/20/2009
A multi-fuel PEM fuel cell power plant has demonstrated power production from both diesel and E85. The system combines a compact autothermal reformer (ATR) based fuel processor with an automotive fuel cell stack to convert liquid fuel into hydrogen and then electricity. While both the fuel processor and fuel cell have been developed over several years of collaboration with the automotive industry1,2,3,4,5, this system is the first generation (Gen 1) demonstration of a lab-independent power plant with embedded controls, no external water input, an integrated heat rejection system, and automotive-style air, fuel, and water controls. The Gen 1 prototype power plant has produced up to 10 kWe net electrical output and demonstrated system efficiencies up to 31%. To achieve a tight schedule, the system utilized non-optimized off-the-shelf balance of plant (BOP) components including air compressors and water pumps that increased the parasitic power and reduced the efficiency. An optimized 10 kWe system is projected to achieve over 34% net system efficiency and give a notable efficiency advantage over the small diesel ICEs typically used in truck Auxiliary Power Units (APUs). Furthermore, higher-power systems on the scale of 80 kWe could achieve over 43% efficiency. These improvements would be enabled primarily via improved BOP, reduced pressure drop, more efficient DC/DC electronics, and higher hydrogen utilization. Since the catalysts in the fuel processor and fuel cell are poisoned by sulfur, initial tests focused on fuels with sulfur less than 3 ppm-wt. Since these fuels are not widely available and would be a major limitation to consumers, a liquid-phase desulfurization technology was developed to allow operation on commercially available fuels. This desulfurizer enabled successful power plant tests on pump-grade Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) with 12 ppm-wt sulfur including 30 hours of automated power cycling. A packaging study is also presented for the power plant in a heavy duty truck APU application.
Bowers, Brian J., Zhao, Jian L., Dattatraya, Druva, Quet, Pierre-François, Shi, Yanlong, James, Eric, Hottle, David, Darby, Eric, Ruffo, Michael, O’Brien, Christopher, Conti, Amedeo
Gadolinia-Doped Ceria Cathodes for Electrolysis of CO2TBMG-34951/1/2009
Gadolinia-doped ceria, or GDC, (Gd0.4Ce0.6O2–δ, where the value of δ in this material varies, depending on the temperature and oxygen concentration in the atmosphere in which it is being used) has shown promise as a cathode material for high- temperature electrolysis of carbon dioxide in solid oxide electrolysis cells. The polarization resistance of a GDC electrode is significantly less than that of an otherwise equivalent electrode made of any of several other materials that are now in use or under consideration for use as cathodes for reduction of carbon dioxide. In addition, GDC shows no sign of deterioration under typical temperature and gas-mixture operating conditions of a high-temperature electrolyzer.
Using Synthetic Kerosene in Civil Jet Aircraft2008-01-22478/19/2008
TU Delft in the Netherlands is performing research into the effects of the use of synthetic kerosene in aircraft. The research program consists of both desk research and tests. In the desk research gas turbine simulations will be combined with payload range performance calculations to show engine effects and fuel consumption changes. Ground and flight tests will be performed to show safe operation on synthetic fuel and to validate the calculations. Measurements during the ground tests will show the changed emissions as a result of the synthetic fuel.
Snijders, T. A., Melkert, J. A.
Development Progress of the Toyota Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle2008-01-04204/14/2008
Since 1992, Toyota Motor Corporation (TMC) has been working on the development of fuel cell system technology. TMC is designing principal components in-house, including fuel cell stacks, high-pressure hydrogen storage tank systems, and hybrid systems. TMC developed the '02 model TOYOTA FCHV, the world-first market-ready fuel cell vehicle, and started limited lease of the vehicles in 2002. In 2005, TMC developed a new model of TOYOTA FCHV which obtained vehicle type certification in Japan, and is currently available for leasing. TMC has improved the cruising range and cold start/drive capability of the TOYOTA FCHV, and conducted public road tests to evaluate the performance. The improved TOYOTA FCHV successfully traveled from Osaka to Tokyo (approximately 560km, 350 miles) on a single fueling of hydrogen. In addition, the cold weather tests carried out in Hokkaido and North America have verified its starting/driving capability at subfreezing temperatures including -37°C. Although many obstacles remain towards commercialization of fuel cell vehicles, TMC is committed to overcome the obstacles. This paper describes TMC's approaches toward solving the challenges of cruising range and cold start/drive capability.
Aso, Shinji, Kizaki, Mikio, Mizuno, Hideaki
Comparison of Emissions and Mutagenicity from Biodiesel, Vegetable Oil, GTL and Diesel Fuel2007-01-404210/29/2007
Diesel engine emissions (DEE) are classified as probably carcinogenic to humans. Since 1995 we observed an appreciable reduction of mutagenicity of DEE driven by reformulated or newly designed fuels in several studies. We compared the mutagenic effects of DEE from two different batches of rapeseed oil (RSO) with rapeseed methyl ester (RME, biodiesel), natural gas derived synthetic fuel (gas-to-liquid, GTL), and a reference diesel fuel (DF). Additionally, we determined the regulated emissions of total hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and particulate matter (PM). Compared with the reference DF the two RSO qualities significantly increased the mutagenic effects of the particle extracts by factors of 9.7 up to 59. RME extracts had a moderate but significant higher mutagenic response. GTL samples did not differ significantly from DF. Concerning the regulated emissions, the results remained below the margins except a up to 15% increase of NOX for the tested bio fuels.
Krahl, Jürgen, Munack, Axel, Ruschel, Yvonne, Schröder, Olaf, Bünger, Jürgen
Alternative Automotive FuelsJ1297_200707 (Historical)7/9/2007
This SAE Information Report provides information on certain fuels that are being used or have been suggested as alternatives to motor gasoline (SAE J312) or automotive diesel fuel (SAE J313) for use in spark-ignition or compression-ignition engines. Some of these fuels are derived from petroleum while others are from non petroleum sources.
Fuels and Lubricants TC 7 Fuels Committee
Transportation Fuels for the Future2006-21-008910/16/2006
This paper analyzes the availability of fossil resources and the projected demand development for transport energy. A continuation of current trends would lead to a gap between fuel supply and demand in 10 to 15 years from now. Based on the 3 political key criteria (security of energy supply, greenhouse gas emission reductions, strengthening of the economy) potential alternative fuels are screened and analyzed according to their contributions towards these political goals. A scenario for the development of future fuels is presented.
Scheuerer, Klaus, Braess, Holger
Properties of Fischer-Tropsch (FT) Blends for Use in Military Equipment2006-01-07024/3/2006
Clean, very low sulfur fuels produced from domestic resources are of interest to the U.S. Military to enhance supply security and reliability versus continuing to rely on the supply of fuels that are either manufactured from an increasing percentage of imported oil or imported in increasing amounts as finished products. [1]* Synthetic Fischer-Tropsch (FT) fuel is one type of fuel that can be produced from domestic resources. FT fuels can be produced from a variety of non-petroleum feed stocks, such as natural gas, coal, petroleum coke, or even biomass and various wastes. Starting with reforming or gasification processes, the FT technology first produces synthesis gas (syngas) which is subsequently processed to high-boiling hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons are then hydrocracked, hydroisomerized, and/or hydroprocessed to produce the desired liquid fuels. The military has a Single Battlefield Fuel Policy which mandates use of the JP-8/JP-5/Jet A-1 aviation turbine fuels. These are currently derived from conventional resources such as petroleum (crude oil). FT aviation turbine fuels have been produced and are being evaluated for use in military equipment by a Joint Agency Department of Defense (DoD) and Department of Energy (DoE) Team. The military will most likely utilize blends of FT fuels with petroleum JP-8/JP-5/Jet A-1 as a first step in evolving towards the use of cleaner fuels that can be produced from domestic resources. Properties of these “FT/petroleum fuel blends” are shown to be similar to those of petroleum JP-8/JP-5/Jet A-1.
Muzzell, Patsy A., Sattler, Eric R., Terry, Angela, McKay, Brian J., Freerks, Robert L., Stavinoha, Leo L.
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