Browse Topic: Synthetic fuels

Items (167)

An investigation of bio/synthetic fuel blends on a multi-cylinder compression ignition engine

2022-01-053103/29/2022

Oxygenated, low energy-density fuels have the potential to reduce engine-out NOx and soot emissions. Additionally, synthetic fuels can provide a pathway to reach carbon neutral utilization of hydrocarbon-based fuels in IC engines. Oxymethylene dimethyl ether (OME) is one such synthetic, low energy density fuel, derived from sustainable sources that in combination with conventional fossil fuels with higher energy content, has the potential to reduce NOx emissions below the US and EU VI legislative limits while maintaining ultra-low soot and CO2 emissions. The objective of this work is to investigate and compare the performance, emissions and efficiency of a modern multi-cylinder diesel engine under conventional high temperature combustion (HTC) with 3 different fuels; 1) 10% OME fuel, blended with conventional ultra-low sulphur diesel (OME10), 2) EU bio-diesel, made from vegetable oils with 10% renewable energy source (RES) content (EU B10), and conventional diesel in North America (B0

Asad, Usman, Ramos, Manuel, Tjong, Jimi

Impacts of methanol blended fuels on emissions and operating performance of two-wheelers

2022-32-002101/09/2022

Aiming to investigate the influence of methanol blends on the combustion process of a PFI four-stroke boxer engine, four mixtures of pure methanol and oxygen-free gasoline (M0) are prepared. The fuels tested are labelled by M15, M25, M35 and M50, where the number represents the percentual in volume of methanol within the mixture. In order to establish a base for comparisons, standard gas-station gasoline (S95) is also tested. Backwards compatibility is evaluated through test-bed measurements, when the engine operates without any modifications in the ECU. Over the whole operational area of the engine map, M15 and M25 can be used in the motorcycle application. Raw emissions of THC, CO2, CO and NOx decrease with the increase of methanol for almost all the conditions tested. It is observed that knock resistance is higher for higher methanol contents. At WOT, power is increased with the methanol proportion, being M50 and M35 more powerful than standard gasoline. Indicated efficiency also

Pellizzaro Batalha, Guilherme, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland

Comparison of Promising Sustainable C1-Fuels Methanol, Dimethyl Carbonate, and Methyl Formate in a DISI Single Cylinder Light Vehicle Gasoline Engine

2021-01-120409/21/2021

On the way to a climate-neutral mobility synthetic fuels with their potential of a CO2-neutral production are currently in the focus of the internal combustion research. In this study the C1-fuels methanol (MeOH), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), and methyl formate (MeFo) are tested as pure C1-fuels mixtures and as blends component for gasoline. The study was performed on a single-cylinder engine in two configurations, thermodynamic and optical. As pure C1-fuels the already investigated DMC/MeFo mixture is compared with a mixture of MeOH/MeFo. DMC is replaced by MeOH, because of its benefits in laminar flame speed, ignition limits and production costs. MeOH/MeFo shows benefits in particle number (PN) emissions at a cooling water temperature of 40°C and in high load operating points. But reversed an increase of 60% in NOx emissions related to DMC/MeFo was observed in hot engine conditions. Both mixtures show no sensitivity in PN emissions for rich combustions. Neither triggered by a global

Blochum, Sebastian, Fellner, Felix, Mühlthaler, Markus, Härtl, Martin, Wachtmeister, Georg, Yoneya, Naoki, Sauerland, Henning

Jet Reference Fluid Study for Fuel Tank Sealants

AIR4275B-TEST-REC (Historical)02/03/2021

This information report covers two distinct projects to formulate Jet Refrence Fluids (JRF) for testing of material compatibility. The first effort began in 1978 and focused on producing a formulation (JRF-2) that simulated JP-4 and included composition with metallic ions that reproduced chalking of fuel tank sealants. This effort resulted in the preparation of AMS2629 that defined the formulation of JRF-2 (Type 1) and the same formulation with metallic ions (Type 2). The second effort began in 2002 and focused on preparing a JRF that simulated Jet A, JP-5 and JP-8. This effort went through multiple iterations, but eventually resulted in a JRF-3 formulation composed of Jet A plus military additives spiked to 25% aromatic content and high levels of sulfur experienced in the global fuel supply. Since the metallic ions added to JRF-2 demonstrated their ability to simulate a chalking reaction, chalking was not tested with the ions added to JRF-3. AMS2629 was changed multiple times to

AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee

Jet Reference Fluid Study for Fuel Tank Sealants

AIR4275B (Current)

02/03/2021

This information report covers two distinct projects to formulate Jet Refrence Fluids (JRF) for testing of material compatibility. The first effort began in 1978 and focused on producing a formulation (JRF-2) that simulated JP-4 and included composition with metallic ions that reproduced chalking of fuel tank sealants. This effort resulted in the preparation of AMS2629 that defined the formulation of JRF-2 (Type 1) and the same formulation with metallic ions (Type 2). The second effort began in 2002 and focused on preparing a JRF that simulated Jet A, JP-5 and JP-8. This effort went through multiple iterations, but eventually resulted in a JRF-3 formulation composed of Jet A plus military additives spiked to 25% aromatic content and high levels of sulfur experienced in the global fuel supply. Since the metallic ions added to JRF-2 demonstrated their ability to simulate a chalking reaction, chalking was not tested with the ions added to JRF-3. AMS2629 was changed multiple times to

AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee

Fuel Dosing on a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst for After-Treatment System Heating on a Heavy-Duty Engine Powered by Polyoxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers

2020-01-215709/15/2020

Polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (OME) are synthetic fuels, which offer the property of sustainability because the reactants of production base on hydrogen and carbon dioxide on the one hand, and the air pollution control in consequence of a soot-free combustion in a diesel engine on the other hand. High exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates are a promising measure for nitrogen oxide (NOx) reduction without increasing particle emissions because of the resolved soot-NOx trade-off. However, EGR rates towards stoichiometric combustion in OME operation reveals other trade-offs such as methane and formaldehyde emissions. To avoid these, a lean mixture with a combination of EGR and exhaust after-treatment with selective catalytic reduction (SCR) is useful. The limitation of urea dosing due to the light-off temperature of SCR systems requires heating measures. Besides electrical heating, fuel injection into the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) for an exothermic reaction is an effective method

Gelner, Alexander D., Pastoetter, Christian, Beck, Harald A., Härtl, Martin, Wachtmeister, Georg

e-Fuel Production via Renewables and the Impact on the In-Use CO ₂ Performance

2020-01-213909/15/2020

The trend towards renewable energy sources will continue under the pre-amble of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets. The main question is how to harvest and store renewable energy properly. The challenge of intermittency of the renewable energy resources make the supply less predictable compared to the traditional energy sources. Chemical energy carriers like hydrogen and synthetic fuels (e-Fuels) seem to be at least a part of the solution for storing renewable energy. The usage of e-Fuels in the existing ICE-powered vehicle fleet has a big lever arm to reduce the GHG emissions of the transport sector in the short- and medium term. The paper covers the whole well-to-wheel (WtW) pathway by discussing the e-Fuel production from renewable sources, the storage and the usage in the vehicle. It will be summarized by scenarios on the impact of e-Fuel to the WtW CO2 fleet emissions. The pathway of renewable chemical energy carriers shows a positive impact to the well-to-wheel CO2

Rothbart, Martin

Application of Synthetic Renewable Methanol to Power the Future Propulsion

2020-01-215109/15/2020

As CO2 emissions from traffic must be reduced and fossil-based traffic fuels need to phase out, bio-based traffic fuels alone cannot meet the future demand due to their restricted availability. Another way to support fossil phase-out is to include synthetic fuels that are produced from circular carbon sources with renewable energy. Several different fuel types have been proposed, while, methanol only requires little processing from raw materials and could be used directly or as a drop-in fuel for some of the current engine fleet. CO2 emissions arising from fuel production are significantly reduced for synthetic renewable methanol compared to the production of fossil gasoline. Methanol has numerous advantages over the currently used fossil fuels with high RON and flame speed in spark-ignition engines as well as high efficiency and low emissions in combustion ignition engines. Feasible options for engine development or upgrading for methanol have been presented separately in the past

Santasalo-Aarnio, Annukka, Nyari, Judit, Wojcieszyk, Michal, Kaario, Ossi, Kroyan, Yuri, Magdeldin, Mohamed, Larmi, Martti, Järvinen, Mika

Injection Process of the Synthetic Fuel Oxymethylene Ether: Optical Analysis in a Heavy-Duty Engine

2020-01-214409/15/2020

Oxygenated synthetic fuels such as oxymethylene ether (OME) are a promising approach to reduce the emissions of diesel engines and to improve sustainability of mobility. The soot-free combustion of OME allows an optimization of the combustion process to minimize remaining pollutants. Considering the injection system, one strategy is to decrease the rail pressure, which has a positive impact on the reduction of nitrogen oxides without increasing the particle formation. Furthermore, due to the reduced lower heating value of OME compared to diesel fuel, an adaptation of the injector nozzle is recommended. This work describes a method for analyzing the injection process for OME, using the Mie scattering effect in an optically accessible heavy-duty diesel engine. The design of the 1.75 l single cylinder engine allows operation up to 300 bar peak cylinder pressure, providing optical access through the piston bowl and through a second window lateral below the cylinder head. An algorithm

Pöllmann, Simon, Härtl, Martin, Wachtmeister, Georg

Potential Analysis and Virtual Development of SI Engines Operated with Synthetic Fuel DMC+

04/14/2020

On the way to emission-free mobility, future fuels must be CO2 neutral. To achieve this, synthetic fuels are being developed. In order to better assess the effects of the new fuels on the engine process, simulation models are being developed that reproduce the chemical and physical properties of these fuels. In this paper, the fuel DMC+ is examined. DMC+ (a mixture of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and methyl formate (MeFo) mainly, characterized by the lack of C-C Bonds and high oxygen content) offers advantages with regard to evaporation heat, demand of oxygen and knock resistance. Furthermore, its combustion is almost particle free. With the aid of modern 0D/1D simulation methods, an assessment of the potential of DMC+ can be made. It is shown that the simulative conversion of a state-of-the-art gasoline engine to DMC+ fuel offers advantages in terms of efficiency in many operating points even if the engine design is not altered. This is mainly due to the higher knock resistance and the

Wagner, Cornelius, Grill, Michael, Keskin, Mahir-Tim, Bargende, Michael, Cai, Liming, Pitsch, Heinz

Neat Oxymethylene Ethers: Combustion Performance and Emissions of OME2, OME3, OME4 and OME5 in a Single-Cylinder Diesel Engine

2020-01-080504/14/2020

Diesel engines are arguably the superior device in the ground transportation sector in terms of efficiency and reliability, but suffer from inferior emission performance due to the diffusive nature of diesel combustion. Great research efforts gradually reduced nitrogen oxide (NOX) and particulate matter (PM) emissions, but the PM-NOX trade-off remained to be a problem of major concern and was believed to be inevitable for a long time. In the process of engine development, the modification of fuel properties has lately gained great attention. In particular, the oxygenate fuel oxymethylene ether (OME) has proven potential to not only drastically reduce emissions, but possibly resolve the formerly inevitable trade-off completely. Although intensified investigations with OME were conducted within the past decade, little is known about the specific influence of fuel properties inherent to unimolecular, high chain length OME on combustion characteristics, emission performance and particle

Dworschak, Patrick, Berger, Vinicius, Härtl, Martin, Wachtmeister, Georg

CFD-Driven Preliminary Investigation of Ethanol-Diesel Diffusive Combustion in Heavy-Duty Engines

2019-01-219212/19/2019

ABSTRACT The introduction of renewable alcohols as fuels for heavy-duty engines may play a relevant role for the reduction of the carbon footprint of the transport sector. The direct injection of ethanol as main fuel and diesel as pilot fuel in the engine combustion chamber through two separate injectors may allow good combustion controllability over the entire engine operating range by targeting diffusive combustion. Closed-cycle combustion simulations have been carried out using AVL FIRE coupled to AVL TABKIN for the implementation of the Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM) chemistry reduction technique in order to investigate the influence of the injection system geometry and the injection strategy of pure ethanol and diesel fuel on ignition characteristics and combustion at different operating conditions.

Giramondi, Nicola, Mihaescu, Mihai, Erlandsson, Anders Christiansen, Jäger, Anders

Considerations for Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Airborne Applications

AIR7765 (Current)11/18/2019

The scope of this joint EUROCAE/SAE report is to compile the considerations relating to airborne application of hydrogen fuel cells. This document provides a comprehensive analysis of the use of hydrogen as a fuel by describing its existing applications and the experience gained by exploiting fuel cells in sectors other than aviation. The use of hydrogen fuel cells in aircraft can help in meeting aviation environmental targets (including noise pollution) and can be vital to achieving efficient electrically propelled air vehicles. The experience gained with mature fuel cells in terrestrial applications and the handling of other gases in aviation, as presented herein, will help in alleviating safety concerns and in demystifying the usage of hydrogen in aviation.

AE-7F Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Comparison of Long-Chain Alcohol Blends, HVO and Diesel on Spray Characteristics, Ignition and Soot Formation

2019-01-001801/15/2019

Spray characteristics of fossil Diesel fuel, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) and two oxygenated fuel blends were studied to elucidate the combustion process. The fuels were studied in an optically accessible high-pressure/high-temperature chamber under non-combusting (623 K, 4.69 MPa) and combusting (823 K, 6.04 MPa) conditions. The fuel blends contained the long-chain alcohol 2-ethylhexanol (EH), HVO and either 20 vol.% Diesel or 7 vol.% rapeseed methyl ester (RME) and were designed to have a Diesel-like cetane number (CN). Injection pressures were set to 120 MPa and 180 MPa and the gas density was held constant at 26 kg/m3. Under non-combusting conditions, shadow imaging revealed the penetration length of the liquid and vapor phase of the spray. Under combusting conditions, the lift-off length and soot volume fraction were measured by simultaneously recording time-resolved two-dimensional laser extinction, flame luminosity and OH* chemiluminescence images. The ignition delay and

Preuss, Josefine Kim, Munch, Karin, Andersson, Mats, Denbratt, Ingemar

OTHER expert voices

19AUTP08_0601/01/2019

Noted industry experts in Powertrain technologies shared their views on future propulsion trends during SAE's 2019 WCX panel, “Still Not Dead: The ICE's Continued Evolution,” moderated by Editor-in-Chief Lindsay Brooke. Some of those insights included: Dr. Uwe Grebe, executive VP, AVL: “Fuels have a significant role to play. I think there's potential to leverage greater efficiency in going to a higher octane number. Then there is discussion of the right utilization of renewables. I think going to synthetic fuels that are based on renewable energy is what we need to promote, because it takes the internal combustion engine out of the CO2 equation.”

Methodical Selection of Sustainable Fuels for High Performance Racing Engines

2018-01-174909/10/2018

As the importance of sustainability increases and dominates the powertrain development within the automotive sector, this issue has to be addressed in motorsports as well. The development of sustainable high-performance fuels defined for the use in motorsports offers technical and environmental potential with the possibility to increase the sustainability of motorsports at the same or even a better performance level. At the moment race cars are predominantly powered by fossil fuels. However due to the emerging shift regarding the focus of the regulations towards high efficient powertrains during the last years the further development of the used fuels gained in importance. Moreover during the last decades a huge variety of sustainable fuels emerged that offer a range of different characteristics and that are produced based on waste materials or carbon dioxide. This study investigates the question of which sustainable fuels offer the characteristics suitable for high-performance race

Schwarz, Lea, Bargende, Michael, Dreyer, Stefan, Baretzky, Ulrich, Kotauschek, Wolfgang, Wohlgemuth, Sebastian, Bach, Florian

Guidance on the Impact of Fuel Properties on Fuel System Design and Operation

AIR7484 (Current)02/24/2018

This document describes a number of jet fuel properties and where applicable gives the specification limits for Jet A and Jet A-1, though the properties are generally applicable to all turbine fuels. Later versions of this document will give more details on specification limits for other similar fuels, such as TS-1, where they differ from Jet A and Jet-A1. It gives details about the possible impact on airframe fuel system design.

AE-5A Aerospace Fuel, Inerting and Lubrication Sys Committee

Alternative Automotive Fuels

J1297_201710 (Current)10/04/2017

This SAE Information Report provides information on certain fuels that are being used or have been suggested as alternatives to motor gasoline (SAE J312) or automotive diesel fuel (SAE J313) for use in spark-ignition or compression-ignition engines. Some of these fuels are derived from petroleum while others are from non petroleum sources.

Fuels and Lubricants TC 7 Fuels Committee

A Review on Second and Third Generation Bioethanol Production

2016-36-051510/25/2016

In a scenario with growing population, increasing demand for energy and volatile prices of fossil fuel, there is a high incentive for the use of biofuels, especially those produced from waste material. In this context, second and third generation bioethanol (2G/3G) are interesting alternatives, as they can be produced from different raw material such as corn and rice straw, sugarcane bagasse, waste from pulp industry and microalgae. This paper presents an overview of the available technologies for both 2G and 3G bioethanol production, including lignocellulosic biomass feedstock, biocatalysts and cogeneration processes.

Teixeira, Ana Carolina Rodrigues, Sodré, José Ricardo, Guarieiro, Lilian Lefol Nani, Vieira, Erika Durão, de Medeiros, Fabiano Ferreira, Alves, Carine Tondo

Derived Cetane Number, Distillation and Ignition Delay Properties of Diesel and Jet Fuels Containing Blended Synthetic Paraffinic Mixtures

2016-01-907610/24/2016

Aviation turbine fuel and diesel fuel were blended with synthetic paraffins produced via two pathways and the combustion properties measured. Both aviation and diesel fuel containing synthetics produced from the fermentation of sugars, had a linear response to blending with decreasing ignition delay times from 5.05 - 3.52 ms for F-34 and 3.84 - 3.52 ms for F-76. For the same fuels blended with synthetics produced from the fermentation of alcohols, ignition delay times were increased out to 18.66 ms. The derived cetane number of the blends followed an inversely similar trend. Additionally, simulated distillation using ASTM D2887 at high synthetic paraffinic kerosene blend ratios resulted in the recovery temperatures being incorrectly reported. In this case, higher recovery volumes were at lower temperatures than earlier recovery points i.e. T90< T50, for SIP-SPK.

Abanteriba, Sylvester, Yildirim, Ulas, Webster, Renee, Evans, David, Rawson, Paul

A Comparison of the Properties and Cold Flow Performance of ‘Summer’ and ‘Winter’ GTL Diesel

2016-01-907405/18/2016

Gas to Liquids (GTL) diesel has been produced commercially for several years. GTL diesel is known for its excellent properties, including zero aromatics, near zero sulphur and a high cetane number. Most of the GTL diesel produced by commercial plants is utilised as a blend component, especially in blends up to 20%. In these applications, the cold flow properties are potentially less critical, as the cold flow properties of the blend will mostly be determined by the petroleum-derived component. In certain markets, however, it is possible that GTL diesel can be used as a neat diesel, therefore requiring good cold flow properties. An advantage of GTL technology is that the cold flow properties of GTL diesel can be tailored to meet the climatic requirements of a specific geographical area. In the current study, GTL diesel samples with cold flow properties ranging from ‘summer type’ to ‘winter type’ and varying intermediate cold flow qualities were evaluated. In line with expectations, it

Wilken, Celeste, de Goede, Stefan, Viljoen, Carl

Plasma Extraction of Oxygen from the Martian Atmosphere

TBMG-2254608/01/2015

Extraction of oxygen from the abundant carbon dioxide present on Mars (96% atmospheric composition) is an important objective in preparation for missions to the planet. Oxygen is not only a fundamental reactant with high-specific-energy chemical fuels such as hydrogen and methane, but, along with water, it is arguably one of the most critical resources for life support. Using microwave plasma techniques to decompose CO2 into CO and O2, coupled with a technology to separate O2 as it is produced, a robotic processor located on the Martian surface would allow oxygen to be stockpiled for later use. Using innovative standing-wave microwave plasma reactor designs, ubiquitous 2.45-GHz microwave technology was employed to demonstrate 86% single-pass carbon dioxide decomposition.

Ignition Quality Effects on Lift-Off Stabilization of Synthetic Fuels

2015-01-079204/14/2015

The ignition and flame stabilization characteristics of two synthetic fuels, having significantly different cetane numbers, are investigated in a constant volume combustion vessel over a range of ambient conditions representative of a compression ignition engine operating at variable loads. The synthetic fuel with a cetane number of 63 (S-1) is characterized by ignition delays that are only moderately longer than n-dodecane (cetane number of 87) over a range of ambient conditions. By comparison, the synthetic fuel with a cetane number of 17 (S-2) requires temperatures approximately 300 K higher to achieve the same ignition delays. The much different ignition characteristics and operating temperature range present a scenario where the lift-off stabilization may be substantially different. At temperatures below 1000 K, the S-2 fuel undergoes a long transient stabilization phase during which the lift-off location moves as much as 15 mm upstream (i.e., toward the injector orifice) after

Lequien, Guillaume, Skeen, Scott, Manin, Julien, Pickett, Lyle M, Andersson, Oivind

Experimental Investigation of a DISI Production Engine Fuelled with Methanol, Ethanol, Butanol and ISO-Stoichiometric Alcohol Blends

2015-01-076804/14/2015

Stricter CO2 and emissions regulations are pushing spark ignition engines more and more towards downsizing, enabled through direct injection and turbocharging. The advantages which come with direct injection, such as increased charge density and an elevated knock resistance, are even more pronounced when using low carbon number alcohols instead of gasoline. This is mainly due to the higher heat of vaporization and the lower air-to-fuel ratio of light alcohols such as methanol, ethanol and butanol. These alcohols are also attractive alternatives to gasoline because they can be produced from renewable resources. Because they are liquid, they can be easily stored in a vehicle. In this respect, the performance and engine-out emissions (NOx, CO, HC and PM) of methanol, ethanol and butanol were examined on a 4 cylinder 2.4 DI production engine and are compared with those on neat gasoline. Additionally, measurements were done for E85 and a methanol-gasoline blend with the same air-to-fuel

Sileghem, Louis, Ickes, Andrew, Wallner, Thomas, Verhelst, Sebastian

Laminar Flame Speed Characterization of Synthetic Gasoline Components

2014-01-261610/13/2014

This paper investigated the laminar flame speed behavior of a matrix of ten spark-ignition fuels and fuel components using a spherical combustion bomb. The analysis methodology relied solely on the in-bomb pressure data. For each fuel measurements were performed at five different air-fuel ratios covering a mixture range from lean to rich. Six repeat combustion pressure traces were recorded for each air-fuel ratio, with each record containing approximately 90 data points. The entire sequence was performed at two initial temperatures resulting in a database of over 5000 individual calculations of laminar flame speed per fuel. A regression technique was employed to determine the relevant flame-speed parameters. The fuel matrix included synthetic and conventional crude-derived gasoline fuels as well as a selection of blend components that could be used in the formulation of synthetic gasoline. The laminar flame speed results were interpreted against standard fuel specification analyses as

Rockstroh, Toby, Burger, Victor, Yates, Andy, Smit, Dylan

The Influence of Some Synthetic Fuels on the Performance and Emissions in a Wankel Engine

2014-01-261110/13/2014

Nowadays, there is a permanent need to develop alternative fuel production and combustion technologies. The general objective indicated in Directive 2009/28/EC for biofuels in Poland is application in transport 10% of renewable energy by 2020 and 20% by 2030. In Poland, it can be achieved by adding bio-components to liquid fuels. Flexible fuel vehicles are not as popular in Europe as in Brazil, so further ethanol processing is justified. The researched synthetic gasoline was obtained from bioethanol at the Ekobenz Company Ltd. in Poland. In 2008, Sasol launched its 100% synthetic jet fuel produced by CTL (Coal to Liquids). A variety of engine concepts was tested and evaluated in terms of the key criteria for use as a range extender developed by AVL Company. The Wankel engine has been selected for the vehicle prototype as the most compact and of excellent NVH behaviour. The use of this engine in light helicopters is also considered. The paper describes the combustion results of a

Siadkowska, Ksenia, Wendeker, Miroslaw, Majczak, Adam, Baranski, Grzegorz, Szlachetka, Marcin

The Compatibility Study of Aircraft Fuel Tank Elastomers with Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosine and its Blends

2014-01-900109/01/2014

The synthetic paraffinic kerosine (SPK) produced via HEFAs is of great interest for civil aviation industry as it exhibits an excellent thermal oxidative stability with significantly lower particulate matter emission. However, due to its aromatic free characteristics, the widespread use of SPK is limited by its compatibility with non-metal materials such as fuel tank elastomers. In this research the compatibility of SPK and its blends with widely used aircraft fuel tank elastomers were systematically studied. Experimental results demonstrated the volume swellability of all selected materials showed a linear relationship with volume percentage of No.3 jet fuel in SPK blend. The increase of volume percentage of No.3 jet fuel in the SPK blend increased volume swellability for all materials except fluorosilicone gasket. The alkyl benzenes and naphthalenes in the blend acted as the hydrogen donors, which facilitated the formation of polymer matrix and led to the increase of the distance

Effects of Gasoline and Ethanol Fuel Corrosion Inhibitors and Fuel Detergents on Powertrain Intake Valve Deposits

2014-01-138304/01/2014

Corrosion inhibitors (CIs) have been used for years to protect the supply and distribution systems used for transportation of fuel from refineries. They are also used to buffer the potential organic acids present in an ethanol blended fuel to enhance storage stability. The impact of the types of inhibitors on spark-ignition engine fuel systems, specifically intake valve deposits, is known and presented in open literature. However, the relationship of the corrosion inhibitors to the powertrain intake valve deposit performance is not understood. This paper has two purposes: to present and discuss a survey of corrosion inhibitors and how they vary in concentration in the final blended fuel, specifically E85 (Ethanol Fuel Blends); and to show how variation in concentration of components of CIs and detergents impact intake valve deposit formation. Commercially available corrosion inhibitor packages and detergent packages for both gasoline and ethanol blended fuels, specifically E85 fuels

Chapman, Elana, Cummings, Jill, Winston-Galant, Mark

Economics of Transportation Hydrocarbon Fuels and Environmental Regulations with Conceptual Solutions - Carbon-Neutral and Carbon-Negative Synfuels

2014-01-194304/01/2014

Of all current proposals for sustainable transportation, the assumption is energy scarcity when there are economically favorable alternatives using existing technology. This paper explores the economics of a sustainable transportation energy pathway that provides carbon-neutral and carbon-negative synthetic fuel derived from seawater as the feedstock and power via Ocean Thermal Energy Cycle (OTEC). Seawater-based synthetic fuel is naturally carbon-neutral - different synthesis processes can yield hydrogen, methane, methanol and ethanol as well as gasoline, diesel or jet fuel - and is carbon-negative when combined with aquaculture. Methanol is favored as a fuel as it requires relatively lower capital investment; can be easily transported and stored; can be used as a feedstock to many chemical processes that currently rely on petrochemicals; and can be coproduced with or converted to dimethyl ether. This paper proposes a new process that for the first time marries OTEC-power and seawater

Bucknell, John R.

Effect of POMDME Blend on PAH Emissions and Particulate Size Distribution from an In-Use Light-Duty Diesel Engine

2014-01-195104/01/2014

Polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether (POMDME) is a synthetic fuel from alternative energy sources, which can be blended in any ratio with petroleum diesel fuel. The regulated and non-regulated emissions, especially polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and particle number size distribution (PNSD), from an old Euro-3 diesel engine fueled with a 7,5% blend of POMDME in commercial diesel fuel were measured and compared to the base diesel fuel, after adjusting exhaust gas ratio (EGR) in order to match the level of NOx emission. The experimental results show a significant reduction in soot and particulate matter (PM) emissions. The number of particles smaller than 30 nm is slightly increased at low speed and low load operating conditions, while at high speed the number concentration of particles larger than 30 nm is reduced. The PAH emissions were found higher for the oxygenated fuel blend than for the base fuel. This result is consistent with the exhaust gas temperature profiles during the PAH

Pellegrini, Leonardo, Patrini, Renata, Marchionna, Mario

Investigation of Fuel Atomization and Evaporation of a DISI Injector Spray Under Homogeneous Charge Conditions

2013-01-159704/08/2013

Understanding the causal loop from injection to combustion in modern direct injection engines is essential to improve combustion and reduce emissions. In this work, the section from injection to fuel-evaporation in this causal loop was investigated using different optical measurement techniques, with a focus on drop size measurements using Phase Doppler Anemometry (PDA). One spray jet of a modern DISI multi-hole injector was investigated using gasoline RON 95 fuel and two single component alkane fuels (n-hexane / n-decane). In a first step the macroscopic spray formation and propagation of this spray jet were studied using a 2D-Mie-scattering technique in an optical injection chamber at homogenous charge DISI conditions. Furthermore, the droplet size distribution and mean diameter were determined spatially and temporally resolved for an ambient pressure of 0.3MPa and different ambient temperature (323K / 423K / 523K) conditions in the optical chamber using Phase Doppler Anemometry. For

Heldmann, Markus, Knorsch, Tobias, Wensing, Michael

Onboard Optimisation of Engine Emissions and Consumption According to Diesel Fuel Quality

2012-01-169409/10/2012

In response to the demand to lower CO2 emission, all engine developers face the challenge of drastically reducing fuel consumption. At the same time, they will need to meet future exhaust emission legislation by simultaneously employing internal measures and after treatment systems. Additionally, they will have to deal with increasing fuel variability. As different properties can lead to very different behavior in engine operation, information onboard the vehicle providing the fuel composition would allow to adjust engine operating parameters accordingly, to make the most beneficial use of the available fuel quality. This will be obvious considering future diesel fuels blends, or the ever increasing amount of biodiesel content mixed into Diesel fuel, but could already be interesting considering existing fuel variability faced in Europe or America. In this context, an innovative Fuel Quality Sensor technology [1] [2] has been developed: it provides detailed information about the

Hermitte, Eric, Lunati, Alain, Delebinski, Thaddaeus

A Comparison of Combustion and Emissions of Diesel Fuels and Oxygenated Fuels in a Modern DI Diesel Engine

2012-01-169509/10/2012

Two oxygenated fuels were evaluated on a single-cylinder diesel engine and compared to three hydrocarbon diesel fuels. The oxygenated fuels included canola biodiesel (canola methyl esters, CME) and CME blended with dibutyl succinate (DBS), both of which are or have the potential to be bio-derived. DBS was added to improve the cold flow properties, but also reduced the cetane number and net heating value of the resulting blend. A 60-40 blend of the two (60% vol CME and 40% vol DBS) provided desirable cold flow benefits while staying above the U.S. minimum cetane number requirement. Contrary to prior vehicle test results and numerous literature reports, single-cylinder engine testing of both CME and the 60-40 blend showed no statistically discernable change in NOx emissions relative to diesel fuel, but only when constant intake oxygen was maintained. The increased NOx emissions typically reported for oxygenated fuels are believed to be largely due to two factors: 1) the method used to

Kurtz, Eric M., Kuhel, Douglas, Anderson, James E., Mueller, Sherry A.

Changing How We Fly Aviation Technology Today and Tomorrow

TBMG-1397106/01/2012

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) reported that last year, U.S. and foreign air carriers transported an estimated 161.8 million passengers between the United States and the rest of the world. The FAA estimates there will be one billion passengers in 2024. So how does the aviation industry handle the prospect of a billion passengers with rising fuel prices, crowded airspace, out-dated systems, and increasing environmental concerns? The answer is new technology that is both in use today, and on the horizon for air travel tomorrow.

Alternative fuels tested at altitude

12DPE0427_0204/27/2012

Federal government researchers in Canada tested certain alternative fuels at simulated altitudes and found that they do offer some benefit. The aviation industry, along with local and international air traffic, is expected to grow in the long term. This continues to increase demand for aviation fuel despite the high crude oil price. Aircraft turbine engines are known to emit nonvolatile soot particles with diameters larger than 10 nm during takeoff and also at cruise speed. In addition, volatile ultrafine particles of diameter less than 10 nm that are formed by the condensation of gas phase species have also been observed downstream of the exhaust plume.

Soot Volume Fraction and Morphology of Conventional, Fischer-Tropsch, Coal-Derived, and Surrogate Fuel at Diesel Conditions

2012-01-067804/16/2012

Future fuels will come from a variety of feed stocks and refinement processes. Understanding the fundamentals of combustion and pollutants formation of these fuels will help clear hurdles in developing flex-fuel combustors. To this end, we investigated the combustion, soot formation, and soot oxidation processes for various classes of fuels, each with distinct physical properties and molecular structures. The fuels considered include: conventional No. 2 diesel (D2), low-aromatics jet fuel (JC), world-average jet fuel (JW), Fischer-Tropsch synthetic fuel (JS), coal-derived fuel (JP), and a two-component surrogate fuel (SR). Fuel sprays were injected into high-temperature, high-pressure ambient conditions that were representative of a practical diesel engine. Simultaneous laser extinction measurement and planar laser-induced incandescence imaging were performed to derive the in-situ soot volume fraction. From experiments, it was found that fuels with long lift-off length generally

Kook, Sanghoon, Pickett, Lyle M.

The Ignition Behavior of a Coal to Liquid Fischer-Tropsch Jet Fuel in a Military Relevant Single Cylinder Diesel Engine

2012-01-119704/16/2012

The U.S. Army currently uses JP-8 for global operations according to the "one fuel forward policy" that was enacted almost twenty years ago in order to help reduce the logistics burden of supplying a variety of fuels for given Department of Defense vehicle and base applications. One particular challenge with using global JP-8 is the lack of or too broad a range of specified combustion and fuel system affecting properties including ignition quality, high temperature viscosity, and lubricity. In addition to these challenges, the JP-8 fuel specification currently allows the use of blending with certain types of synthetic jet fuels up to 50% by volume. This blended fuel also doesn't include an ignition quality or high temperature viscosity specification, but does include a lubricity specification that is much less restrictive than DF-2. One particular currently available synthetic fuel that could be used as a blending agent with JP-8 is produced by Sasol for use in South Africa and is a

Schihl, Peter, Hoogterp-Decker, Laura, Gingrich, Eric

Jet Reference Fluid Study for Fuel Tank Sealants

AIR4275A (Historical)01/17/2012

Standard reference fluids, or test fluids, have long been used to evaluate the effects of hydrocarbon fuels on various materials, such as integral fuel tank sealants. Standard fluids are required because hydrocarbon fuels, such as JP-4, vary widely in composition depending on crude source, refining techniques, and other factors. To ensure reliable and reproducible results when determining the fuel resistance of materials, reference fluids of known composition, using worst case fuel compositions, are used. The current Jet Reference Fluid (JRF) called out in military sealant specifications was developed in the mid-1950s specifically as a JP-4 type test fluid formulation to be used for the accelerated laboratory testing of integral fuel tank sealants. In August 1978, chalking of the polysulfide sealant in integral fuel tanks of some new aircraft at Edwards Air Force Base in California was discovered after only 1 year of service. Although chalking of polysulfide sealants had been observed

AMS G9 Aerospace Sealing Committee

Selection of the Most Promising Alternative Fuels for Aircraft Development: ALFA-BIRD Proposal

2011-01-279110/18/2011

Air traffic has been steadily increasing for the last years. Moreover, fuel availability at a reasonable cost seems more and more uncertain. Climate change implies that greenhouse gases emissions should be reduced. In this context, the search for new alternative fuels for aircraft seems to be a promising solution. Nevertheless, aeronautic represents a very specific transportation mode, due to its usage (short range, middle range, long range with the same fuel, worldwide distribution of the fuel…) and its compulsory security constraints. In the first part of the European project ALFA-BIRD (Alternative Fuels and Biofuels for Aircraft development - FP7), a selection of the best candidates to become the fuels for the future of aircraft has been done. The selection process was very complex, due to multiple criteria (physical properties, economical issued, environmental issues…). A first matrix of 12 blends has been defined including: FSJF (Fully Synthetic Jet Fuel), FT-SPK (Fischer-Tropsch

Pidol, Ludivine, Starck, Laurie, Jeuland, Nicolas, Allouche, Yohan

Gaseous and Particle Emissions from a Turbo-Jet Engine Operating on Alternative Fuels at Simulated Altitudes

2011-01-259710/18/2011

Gaseous and particle emission assessments on a 1.15 kN-thrust turbojet engine were conducted at five altitudes in an altitude chamber with Jet A-1 fuel, pure Fischer Tropsch (FT), and two mixed fuels of JP-8 with FT or Camelina-based hydro-processed jet fuels. In general, lower emissions in CO₂, NOx, and particle number as well as higher emissions in CO and THC were observed at higher altitudes compared to lower altitudes. These observations, which were similar for all test fuels, were attributed to the reduced combustion efficiency and temperature at higher altitudes. The use of alternative fuels resulted in lower CO₂ emissions, ranging from 0.7% to 1.7% for 50% to 100% synthetic fuel in the fuel mixture at various altitudes. In terms of CO, the use of 100% FT fuel resulted in CO reduction up to 9.7% at 1525 m altitude and up to 5.9% at 9145 m altitude. Significant reduction in particle diameter, number and mass emission rates were observed with the use of alternative fuels due to the

Chan, Tak W., Cuddihy, Kevin, Chishty, Wajid, Davison, Craig, McCurdy, Mark, Barton, Peter

Interrogating the surface: the effect of blended diesel fuels on lubricity

2011-01-194008/30/2011

The lubricating properties of two sustainable alternative diesels blended with ultra low sulphur diesel (ULSD) were investigated. The candidate fuels were a biodiesel consisting of fatty acid methyl esters derived from rapeseed (RME) and gas-to-liquid (GTL). Lubricity tests were conducted on a high frequency reciprocating rig (HFRR). The mating specimen surfaces were analysed using optical microscopy and profilometery for wear scar diameters and profiles respectively. Microscopic surface topography and deposit composition was evaluated using a scanning electronic microscope (SEM) with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). Like all modern zero sulphur diesel fuel (ZSD), GTL fuels need a lubricity agent to meet modern lubricity specifications. It has been proven that GTL responds well to typical lubricity additives in the marketplace. The lubricity of ULSD, GTL and blends of these fuels were significantly improved with the addition of as little as 10% volume of RME, inducing more

Sukjit, Ekarong, Dearn, Karl D., Tsolakis, Athanasios

Determination Of Mixture Of Methanol And Ethanol Blends In Gasoline Fuels Using A Miniaturized NIR Flex Fuel Sensor

2011-01-198808/30/2011

Based on their 25 world-wide years experience in refining and fuel formulation using Near Infrared technology, the SP3H team has developed an innovative and miniaturized optical fuel quality sensor. The sensor output is based on an HCP matrix (HydroCarbon Profilers) and provides information on the fine chemistry of fuels such as aromatics, olefins, isoparaffins and oxygenates content and information related to the lengths of the Carbon-Carbon Chain. The goal of this study is to answer the need for new flex-fuel sensors able to provide the rate and the type of oxygenates used in different mixtures of binary and ternary blends of methanol, ethanol and gasoline for the emerging markets. This paper presents the results of the models and the accuracy of the optical sensor for the determination and prediction of Methanol-Ethanol-gasoline mixtures based on the HCP approach.

Lunati, Alain, Galtier, Oswin

Beating a path to biodiesel

11OFHD0707_0307/07/2011

Multiple pathways are being pursued to increase biodiesel use, reduce dependence on petroleum, and improve the environment, but the best route is not yet known. “We're spoiled rotten with petroleum” is how one speaker at April's SAE 2011 World Congress put things into perspective in a discussion about how to kick the oil addiction. “It's a wonderful resource in terms of energy efficiency and ease of conversion.” The clear implication by the speaker, Penn State University fuel sciences professor Andre Boehman, is that finding alternatives to that gold standard will be difficult. Not that the other speakers on the Congress' “Charging Forward on Petroleum Alternatives” panel-a well as audience members-didn't already know that. But the speakers didn't stop at lamenting; they provided insights into the advantages and disadvantages of the various alternatives, including biofuels. Though much of the discussion focused on the light-vehicle sector, the insights on diesel apply to heavy-duty and

Ponticel, Patrick

Aerospace Engineering 2011-06-08

11AERD060806/08/2011

Avionics go to war Advanced helmet sight systems are being designed to help the situational awareness of those pilots who actually still fly aircraft, while also being seamlessly integrated with the aircraft itself. Model military engine behavior While the concept of a variable cycle engine is not new, recent advances in engine architecture technology suggest that adding a second bypass stream to a traditional turbofan can provide significant benefits. Alternative seals for alternative fuels When considering seal compatibility an aircraft from traditional jet fuel to a synthetic fuel presents an interesting technical challenge that has both financial and practical considerations, especially for aircraft that are already in service.

High Cetane Fuel Combustion Performance in a Conventional Military Diesel Engine

2011-01-033404/12/2011

Synthetic diesel fuels from Fischer-Tropsch or hydrotreating processes have high cetane numbers with respect to conventional diesel fuel. This study investigates diesel combustion characteristics with these high cetane fuels. A military jet fuel (JP-5 specification), a Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthetic diesel, and normal hexadecane (C16), a pure component fuel with defined cetane number of 100, are compared with operation of conventional military diesel fuel (F-76 specification). The fuels are tested in a AM General GEP HMMWV engine, an indirect-injection, largely mechanically-controlled diesel engine. Hundreds of thousands of these are in current use and are projected to be in service for many years to come. Experimental testing showed that satisfactory operation could be achieved across the speed-load operating map even for the highest cetane fuel (normal hexadecane). The JP-5, FT, and C16 fuels all showed later injection timing. Despite having a significantly higher cetane number, the

Cowart, Jim, Carr, Matthew, Caton, Pat, Stoulig, Lars, Luning-Prak, Dianne, Moore, Andrew, Hamilton, Leonard

Binary Mixtures of Branched and Aromatic Pure Component Fuels as Surrogates for Future Diesel Fuels

2010-01-218810/25/2010

Future synthetic diesel fuels will likely involve mixtures of straight and branched alkanes, possibly with aromatic additives to improve lubricity and durability. To simulate these future fuels, this study examined the combustion characteristics of binary mixtures of 50%, 70%, and 90% isododecane in hexadecane, and of 50%, 70%, and 80% toluene in hexadecane using a single-cylinder research diesel engine with variable injection timing. These binary blends were also compared to operation with commercial petroleum diesel fuel, military petroleum jet fuel, and five current synthetic Fischer-Tropsch diesel and jet fuels. The synthetic diesel and jet fuels showed reasonable similarity with many of the combustion metrics to mid-range blends of isododecane in hexadecane. Stable diesel combustion was possible even with the 80% toluene and 90% isododecane blends; in fact, operation with 100% isododecane was achieved, although with significantly advanced injection timing. As the concentration of

Mathes, Andrew, Ries, Jacob, Caton, Patrick, Cowart, Jim, Luning Prak, Dianne, Hamilton, Leonard

Properties of Butanol-Biodiesel-ULSD Ternary Mixtures

2010-01-213310/25/2010

The use of butanol as an alternative biofuel blend component for conventional diesel fuel has been under extensive investigation. However, some fuel properties such as cetane number and lubricity fall below the accepted values as described by the ASTM D 975 diesel specifications. Blending 10% butanol with #2 ULSD decreases the cetane number by 7% (from 41.6 to 39.0). At higher butanol blend levels, i.e., 20% v/v, the cetane number decrease cannot be compensated for; even with the addition of a 2000 ppm level commercial cetane improver. The decreased cetane number, or in other words, increased ignition delay, can be attributed to the increased blend level of low cetane butanol as well as the critical physical properties for better atomization of fuels during auto ignition such as viscosity. The kinematic viscosity dropped sharply with increasing butanol blend level up to 25 % v/v, then increased with further increase of butanol blend level. Also, the addition of butanol decreases the

Wadumesthrige, Kapila, Ng, K. Y. Simon, Salley, Steven O.

Evaluation of Fischer-Tropsch Fuel Performance in Advanced Diesel Common Rail FIE

2010-01-219110/25/2010

An increasing range of conventional and unconventional feed stocks will be used to produce fuel of varying chemical and physical properties for use in compression ignition engines. Fischer-Tropsh (F-T) technology can be used to produce fuels of consistent quality from a wide range of feed stocks. The present study evaluates the performance of F-T fuel in advanced common rail fuel injection systems. Laboratory scale tests are combined with proprietary engine and electrically driven common rail pump hydraulic rig tests to predict long-term performance. The results obtained indicate that the performance of F-T fuel is at least comparable to conventional hydrocarbon fuels and superior in a number of areas. In particular, the lubricity of F-T fuel was improved by addition of lubricity additives or FAME, with minimal wear under a wide range of operating conditions and temperatures. No deposits or lacquer was produced on fuel injection system components; even under relatively severe operating

Lacey, Paul, Kientz, Jean Marc, Gail, Sandro, Milovanovic, Nebojsa, Stevenson, Paul, Stradling, Richard, Clark, Richard H., Boonwatsakul, Ratchatapong

The influence of lubricity (HFRR) and cetane number (CN) in diesel engines for military application with use of combinations of fuels (QAV1/DIESEL/BIODIESEL)

2010-36-038310/06/2010

In military operations always search the availability of equipment in adverse situations. The flexibility of operating on alternative fuels becomes every day a real need to be sought by all manufacturers who to provide for this segment of market. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the use of mixtures of jet fuel (QAV-1) + diesel and Biodiesel in the operation of diesel engines monitoring the parameters lubricity HFRR (High Frequency Reciprocating Rig) and cetane number fuel and also performance parameters. For this study, was used a diesel engine of 279 kW applied on a dynamometer. For lubricity was used the method HFRR according to the standard ASTM D6079 and for cetane number the results were obtained using ASTM D613. The results contributed to a better understanding of the physical-chemical properties of fuels tested and their contributions to the operation of diesel engines.

de Matos, Torres e Rodrigues Diogo, Bonfim, Osvaldo Luiz, Bueno, Willian Florentino, Zanchet, Walter, Louzada, Adiel Paes

An Experimental Strategy for the Manufacture of Aviation Fuel

2010-01-187809/28/2010

Air travel has continued to increase dramatically and all indications are that the rapid rate, approximately 4% per annum, will continue into the foreseeable future. One major barrier to this growth is related to fuel. There exist major technical challenges in supplying fuels and in reducing exhaust pollutants. Transport propulsion is dependent on limited sources, mainly fossil fuels, which have a peak production predicted to be around 2005, and crude oil sources are limited and will eventually run out. Commercial air transport is responsible for around 700 million tons of jet-fuel derived CO₂ today, about 2.31% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide, future forecasts of aviation growth show CO₂ emissions from the sector rising rapidly and inexorably to more than 1 billion tons by 2025 and this is unlikely to be acceptable. The future rate of gains in 15-20% aviation fuel efficiency (excluding dramatic improvement in fuel efficiency since the first commercial turbine aircraft which

Xuan Phuong, Pham

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