Browse Topic: Diesel fuels

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On-Board Fuel Sensing for UAS and Ground Vehicle Applications2024-01-41289/16/2024
Abstract The variability in fuel, particularly for fuel blends containing sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs), emphasizes the importance of understanding fuel properties for optimizing engine performance. This paper introduces spectroscopic fuel sensors capable of real-time estimation of jet fuel properties, mainly derived cetane number (DCN). While initially developed for unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), the paper explores their potential in ground vehicle applications: enhancing engine performance through sensing for feed-forward control and fuel property monitoring at fuel depots. The fuel sensing technologies are based on spectroscopic techniques coupled with machine learning (ML) approaches. The combination of these techniques demonstrates a promising solution for a wide spectrum of fuel applications.
Patel, Dev B., Sutar, Ashish, Abraham, Abhinav, Ambre, Dhananjay, Brezinsky, Kenneth, Lynch, Patrick T., Okada, Haruna, Stafford, Jacob M., Miganakallu, Niranjan, Sanders, Scott, Rothamer, David, Mayhew, Eric, Kim, Kenneth S.
Fuels in Ground Support Equipment (Other Than Gasoline or Diesel)AIR5373A (Current)9/23/2020
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended as a source of comparative information and is subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This document describes currently used fuels and fuels which may be used in the future. Conventional gasoline and diesel fuels are intentionally omitted from this document.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Fuel Dispensing Filter Test MethodsJ2793_202005 (Current)5/26/2020
This SAE Recommended Practice is applicable to gasoline and diesel fuel filters installed on fuel dispensing equipment, mobile or stationary. It describes a set of tests used to characterize the structural integrity, filtration performance, and reaction to water contaminant with fuel dispensing filters.
Filter Test Methods Standards Committee
Development of a Method to Measure Soft Particles from Diesel Type Fuels2020-01-03444/14/2020
Renewable fuels have an important role to create sustainable energy systems. In this paper the focus is on biodiesel, which is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats. Today biodiesel is mostly used as a drop-in fuel, mixed into conventional diesel fuels to reduce their environmental impact. Low quality drop-in fuel can lead to deposits throughout the fuel systems of heavy duty vehicles. In a previous study fuel filters from the field were collected and analyzed with the objective to determine the main components responsible for fuel filter plugging. The identified compounds were constituents of soft particles. In the current study, the focus was on metal carboxylates since these have been found to be one of the components of the soft particles and associated with other engine malfunctions as well. Hence the measurement of metal carboxylates in the fuel is important for future studies regarding the fuel’s effect on engines. The first aim of this study was to create synthetic soft particles from biodiesel. Accelerated aging of fuels with different contaminations such as engine oil and calcium oxide were used to create the synthetic soft particles. The precipitates were collected and analyzed with different techniques such as FTIR and GC-MS, to identify the main components which were then compared with the results of the previous study. Following this, specific attention was given to calcium methyl azelate as it was shown to be found in field fuel filters. A method using GC-MS was developed to be able to estimate the amount of soft particles by measuring calcium methyl azelate. The specified method proved to be adequate for future studies to evaluate the filtration efficiency of different filter materials against soft particles.
Csontos, Botond, Swarga, Shriharsha, Bernemyr, Hanna, Pach, Mayte, Hittig, Henrik
Experimental Comparison of Biogas and Natural Gas as Vibration, Emission, and Performance in a Diesel Engine Converted to a Dual Fuel04-13-01-00041/27/2020
Biogas, natural gas, and their usage in the diesel engine will be important in the future. For this purpose, the effects of biogas on engine performance, emissions, and engine vibrations of the diesel engines with dual fuel system are investigated in comparison with natural gas. It has also been included in evaluating the deformation of the engine oil due to hydrogen sulfide combustion reactions. In this study, a constant speed, naturally aspirated, and direct injection of the diesel engine with volume of 2.5 liter has been converted into a dual fuel system that can be included in gas fuels. In order to determine engine performance, exhaust emissions, engine vibration, and noise, the tests were carried out at load stages of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 kW and at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The experiments were first performed in a mono operation condition of the conventional diesel fuel. Subsequently, tests were repeated under natural gas/diesel and biogas/diesel dual fuel operation conditions, respectively. As a result of the tests, it was observed that the vibration amount decreased and the noise emission was reduced by 3.5% in all stages where biogas was used as the main fuel. Depending on fuel or operation system change, no significant change was observed in cylinder block, cylinder heat, exhaust, and intake manifold temperature. The exhaust gas temperature is measured to be lower because of the carbon dioxide (CO2) content in the biogas. When approaching from the point view of engine emissions, it was determined that the carbon monoxide (CO) emission increased at all engine loads while a decrease of 50% in oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission occurred.
Aytav, Emre, Koçar, Günnur, Teksan, Abdulhalik Emre
The Combustion Characteristic of Fuel Additives with Diesel–Ethanol Fuel blends on Engine Performance2019-32-06111/24/2020
Reducing carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) is one of the most important drivers to promote biofuels. Fuel from biomass has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and can gradually reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. However, fuel properties can differ significantly from standard diesel fuel and this will affect exhaust emissions and environmental pollution. Diesel – ethanol fuel blends development and specification are currently driven by the engine technology, existing fossil fuel specification and availability of feedstock. Thus, the aims of this study to investigate the effects of fuel additives with diesel–ethanol fuel blend under steady-state conditions. In the present study, the additives were palm diesel, n-butanol, ethyl acetate and di-tert-butyl peroxide (DTBP). The ratio of conventional diesel fuel to ethanol fuel to fuel additive are 80:15:5 by volume of fuel blends. The comparative studies on the effects of fuel additives in the engine performance and phase separation in diesel–ethanol blends. The effects of engine performance included exhaust gas emissions with different fuel additives on small diesel engine are also investigated under different engine conditions in order to considering the engine speed and engine load comparison with conventional diesel. The study found that all the additives are enhanced the stabilities in diesel–ethanol fuel blends and phase separation has not be found under the room temperature. The diesel–ethanol fuel blend with DTBP can improved the highest thermal efficiency with lower exhaust gas emission (e.g. carbon-monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and soot) compare with conventional diesel with another fuel additives. However, the break specific fuel consumption is higher (>4%) than conventional diesel which could be acceptable range. The results suggest that significant benefits can derive from the use of di-tert-butyl peroxide as fuel additive for diesel and ethanol fuel blends as the alternative fuel for compression ignition engine in terms of engine performance, exhaust gas emissions, after treatment system performance and environmental pollution in the near future.
Theinnoi, Kampanart, Sawatmongkhon, Boonlue, Wongchang, Thawatchai, Sukjit, Ekarong, Chuepeng, Sathaporn
Utilization of Castor Oil-Based Ethyl Ester Biodiesel in a Diesel Engine2019-32-06061/24/2020
Biodiesel was prepared through transesterification of castor oil and ethanol. The optimization of parameters related to the yield of transesterification, such as oil to ethanol molar ratio, concentration of catalyst, reaction temperature and reaction time, was investigated. The results indicated that the optimum condition for castor oil ethyl ester (COEE) production was 1:12 oil to ethanol molar ratio, 1.5% catalyst concentration, 40 °C reaction temperature and 150 minutes reaction time. To avoid extremely high viscosity of castor oil which can affect the fuel injection system, COEE was blended with commercial diesel fuel at different concentrations ranged from 5%-15% volume and key properties of fuel blends, mainly focused on fuel lubricity and viscosity were evaluated. The presence of 8% COEE in diesel fuel was concluded as the optimum concentration because the smallest wear scar diameter was obtained after the lubricity test and its viscosity was within acceptable limits prescribed by the standard specification of diesel fuel. Consequently, the blend of 8% COEE and diesel fuel was selected in the engine test. The results showed that the addition of 8% COEE to diesel fuel can improve brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption. Moreover, the reduction in carbonaceous gas emissions and oxides of nitrogen was obtained by the combustion of the COEE blend.
Pumpuang, Anupap, Maithomklang, Somkiat, Sukjit, Ekarong, Dejvajara, Disatorn, Samaiklang, Phannathon, Sanluecha, Somluethai, Tongroon, Manida
THE EFFECT OF BIODIESEL ON THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF AUTOMOTIVE ELASTOMERIC COMPOUNDS2019-36-03271/13/2020
The lack of electrical conductivity on materials, which are used in automotive fuel systems, can lead to electrostatic charges buildup in the components of such systems. This accumulation of energy can reach levels that exceed their capacity to withstand voltage surges, which considerably increases the risk of electrical discharges or sparks. Another important factor to consider is the conductivity of the commercially available fuels, such as biodiesel, which contributes to dissipate these charges to a proper grounding point in automobiles. From 2013, the diesel regulation in Brazil have changed and the levels of sulfur in the composition of diesel were reduced considerably, changing its natural characteristic of promoting electrostatic discharges, becoming more insulating. Taking into account the critical factors mentioned above, the SAE J1645 standard specifies the levels of conductivity and maximum electrostatic energy accumulation (ESD) that automotive materials must meet to avoid unintentional discharges on these systems and guarantee the integrity of the involved components and the safety of occupants. Thus, this work aims to analyze the effect of (bio)diesel on the electrical properties of a new elastomeric composition (PVC/NBR+) for fuel filler hoses. The findings present evidence that this new formulation has high performance in the dissipation of electrostatic charges and can meet the conductivity levels requested by SAE J1645, even in aging test with aggressive biodiosel.
Ângelo Aguiar, Rodrigo Polkowski, Almeida, Oberti, Gonçalves, Cristiane, Herbert, Cristiano, Santos, Helano, Souza, Jodalva
B-GAS: Conversion system to Internal Combustion Engine (Diesel) for using alternative energetic source for application in Agricultural Machinery2019-36-02351/13/2020
Fuel has a huge port in the operating costs of agribusiness, the increase on the price and the shortage of this energy resource has a direct impact on agricultural production costs. In this context, regions that are farther from refineries and lack the presence of fuel distribution centers tend to suffer more from the availability and cost of this resource. Economically speaking, agribusiness has a prominent position in the national scenery. The world fuel source had an evolution from the predominance of solid fuels to the current age of liquid fuels derived from petroleum and seeing the future and growing age of gas fuels as the predecessor stage of electric vehicles in some markets. Thereby, agricultural organic waste has the potential to generate an alternative energy, clean and ecological matrix, also reducing the emission of polluting gases, soil, groundwater, rivers and weir are still prevented, and the release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as methane and carbon dioxide. In Brazil, animal waste is normally used for the generation of biofuel, and only 14% of it used in automobiles. Thus, biogas has been studied as a promising energy matrix because it is less polluting and renewable to mitigate the damaging effects of fossil fuels. However, it is highest limitation is the low development of adaptation for Diesel engines, whereupon the project in question is aimed, of which purpose is to develop solutions for existing Diesel engines while maintaining the performance and durability, reducing the dependence of fossil fuels and allowing the use of alternative and cheaper energy sources, produced by the agriculturalists who have space and infrastructure to produce their own fuel, making it self-sustaining. Thus, the development of the project will be guided by the injection of the biogas in the intake manifold in a stoichiometric ratio of air / fuel according to operational necessity, while the biodiesel injected directly into the combustion chamber will be of utmost importance for the start of combustion as pilot flame, since the biogas is unable to combust only with the compression of the cylinder.
da Silva, Giovana Queiroz, Gomes, Cléber Willian, dos Santos, Guilherme Bugatti, Nunes da Costa, Paulo Eduardo Wey, Talib Soares, Pedro Augusto, Raduan, Renato Zerbinatti, Gomes, Vinícius Trento
Precipitation Study of B30 Blended from FAME and/or HVO and Petro Diesel Fuel2019-01-219012/19/2019
Indonesia has planned for the implementation of B30 fuel in 2020, and as a consequence, a large-scale production of biodiesel from palm oil will be significantly increased in the country. In application as public transportation fuel, biodiesel quality and blending composition play an important role for the success of the implementation of B30 program. Indonesia consists of highlands and lowlands as urban areas that have different temperature regions varying from 12 - 35°C. Cold temperature could accelerate the formation of precipitate of B30 fuels. Samples of B30 fuels were made by blending biodiesel and/or hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) with Euro 3 and Euro 4 petro diesel fuels. The precipitate composed of monoglycerol and FAME. Precipitation of the chemicals was caused by their higher melting point that crystallized and the solvency effect of petro diesel in cold temperature. It was found that the amount of precipitate formed in B30 blended from 30% FAME and 70% Euro 4 petro diesel fuel was the highest one. Therefore, the requirement for monoglycerol and moisture contents in biodiesel quality needed to be improved to avoid more precipitates formed in B30 fuel in cold temperature region.
Mansur, Dieni, Fitriady, Muhammad Arifuddin, Setiapraja, Hari, Paryanto, Imam, Haspriyanti, Nita, Dela, Nurul, Gozan, Misri
The precipitation of biodiesel impurities at low temperature and its effect on fuel filter2019-01-218812/19/2019
Biofuels are expanding continuously in global market as one of renewable options to replace fossil fuels. Biodiesel is the most commonly used biofuel that can be blended into conventional diesels in any proportion. However, higher biodiesel blends may cause problems. One of its problems is precipitation formation arise from biodiesel may clog fuel filter at low temperature. This study focuses on fuel and environment factors on biodiesel precipitation and their influence degree on fuel filter clogging. The results indicate that monoglycerides and temperature have strong correlation with precipitate weight. Moreover, quantitative effect of precipitate weight on filter clogging was clarified.
Suwannamit, Sareewan, Ngammoh, Jaratpong, Funahashi, Minoru, Tasaki, Mamoru, Krissanasaeranee, Methira, Porntangjitlikit, Suriya, Silapakampeerapap, Supap, Wuttimongkolchai, Arunratt, Chiampradit, Nitiwat
An Effect of Utilization B30 from Various Blends of B0:FAME and HVO on Emissions, Fuel Consumption and Power of Euro4 Vehicle Technology2019-01-218912/19/2019
Indonesia has implemented mandatory for utilization of high ratio biodiesel starting from B10 (10% of biodiesel and 90% of diesel fuel by volume) in 2013 then it gradually increased to B20 in 2016 and B30 in 2020. On the other hand, Indonesian Government will also strengthen vehicle emission regulation from Euro 2 to Euro4 in 2021. Therefore, B0 (low sulfur diesel fuel) and B100 (biodiesel) fuel properties as blended fuel for B30 must be improved to comply with Euro4 vehicle emission regulation. In this study various formulation of B30 were investigated, in which the B100 was varied from FAME (fatty Acid Methyl Ester), HVO (Hydrotreated Vegetable oil), and blend of FAME and HVO. The test was conducted under Euro4 vehicle technology to investigate their effect on emissions, fuel consumption and power. In this experiment, emission, fuel consumption and power were tested using UN-ECE R83-05 regulation, UN-ECE R101 and acceleration method respectively. The results showed that B30 has lower CO, HC and particulate emission compared with B0. However, NOx emission for some formulation slightly increased. Moreover, B30 could comply with emission limit, as stated under Euro4 regulation. Fuel consumption for B30 with some formulation was 2-3% higher than that of B0, but it was about the same between B0 and B30 with optimization ratio of FAME and HVO.
Setiapraja, Hari, Yubaidah, Siti, Ekasari, Mutia, Haspriyanti, Nita, Rustyawan, Wawan, Rochim, Abdul
Control of the Distillation Curve of Biodiesel Fuel by Cross-Metathesis Reaction Based on Fatty-Acid Composition2019-01-218712/19/2019
Biodiesel fuel (Fatty acid methyl esters: FAME) have lower volatility than petro-diesel fuel due to the larger molecular size of FAME. Recent studies report that the distillation temperature of biodiesel fuel can be lowered by the cross-metathesis reaction with short-chain olefin using ruthenium catalyst. In this study, the effect of cross-metathesis reaction conditions on the distillation characteristics of reformulated biodiesel fuel is investigated to reveal the reaction conditions for fitting the distillation curve of biodiesel fuels to that of petro-diesel fuel. Furthermore, the reactivity of typical biodiesel fuels such as RME (rapeseed oil), SME (soybean oil), and WME (waste cooking oil) for cross-metathesis reaction were examined to reveal the reaction conditions appropriate for their fatty-acid compositions.
Kawasaki, Kiyoshi, Yamane, Koji, Umeno, Ryohei
Research of Fuel Characteristic of Dimethyl ether / High Viscosity & Incombustible matter Blend for Marine Diesel Engine2019-01-222912/19/2019
Diesel engine has fuel combustion capability in various high density oil such as residual fuels or biofuels derived from fossil or living matter. But for commercial use, these fuels except bio diesel fuel (BDF) should be heated, separated and filtered by equipment and dosed or mixed with additive or distillate oil etc. before being supplied to the engine in order to improve combustibility. This study aims to illuminate fuel characteristic of blend contained woody pyrolysis oil (WPO) which is high viscosity and incombustible, and dimethyl ether (DME) whose emission of combustion has no soot particle. This paper describes thermo-physical property of neat WPO and the blend on the basis of the evaluation of fuel fluidity by measurement and calculation of viscosity. According to the result, it was confirmed that the fluidity of WPO was improved by mixing DME and the approximate viscosity expressions at any temperature of WPO and the blend were good accuracy.
MIHARA, Yu, KURO-OKA, Daiki, SHIRAHAMA, Tomoki, KUWAOKA, Kenta, SUZUKI, Takashi, ASANO, Ichiro, DAN, Tomohisa
CFD-Driven Preliminary Investigation of Ethanol-Diesel Diffusive Combustion in Heavy-Duty Engines2019-01-219212/19/2019
ABSTRACT The introduction of renewable alcohols as fuels for heavy-duty engines may play a relevant role for the reduction of the carbon footprint of the transport sector. The direct injection of ethanol as main fuel and diesel as pilot fuel in the engine combustion chamber through two separate injectors may allow good combustion controllability over the entire engine operating range by targeting diffusive combustion. Closed-cycle combustion simulations have been carried out using AVL FIRE coupled to AVL TABKIN for the implementation of the Flamelet Generated Manifold (FGM) chemistry reduction technique in order to investigate the influence of the injection system geometry and the injection strategy of pure ethanol and diesel fuel on ignition characteristics and combustion at different operating conditions.
Giramondi, Nicola, Mihaescu, Mihai, Erlandsson, Anders Christiansen, Jäger, Anders
Modeling the Impact of Alternative Fuel Properties on Light Vehicle Engine Performance and Greenhouse Gases Emissions2019-01-230812/19/2019
The present-day transport sector needs sustainable energy solutions. Substitution of fossil-fuels with fuels produced from biomass is one of the most relevant solutions for the sector. Nevertheless, bringing biofuels into the market is associated with many challenges that policymakers, feedstock suppliers, fuel producers, and engine manufacturers need to overcome. The main objective of this research is an investigation of the impact of alternative fuel properties on light vehicle engine performance and greenhouse gases (GHG). The purpose of the present study is to provide decision-makers with tools that will accelerate the implementation of biofuels into the market. As a result, two models were developed, that represent the impact of fuel properties on engine performance in a uniform and reliable way but also with very high accuracy (coefficients of determination over 0.95) and from the end-user point of view. The inputs of the model are represented by fuel properties, whereas output by fuel consumption (FC). The parameters are represented as percentage changes relative to standard fossil fuel, which is gasoline for spark ignition (SI) engines and diesel for compression ignition (CI) engines. The methodology is based on data-driven black-box modeling (input-output relation). The multilinear regression was performed using the data from driving cycles such as the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) and New European Driving Conditions (NEDC). The FC of SI engines proved to be dependent on mass-based Net Calorific Value (NCV), Research Octane Number (RON), oxygen content and density. However, CI engines performance is affected by NCV, density and Cetane Number (CN). The models were additionally subject to quantitative analysis, where input parameters in both models turned out to be statistically significant (p-value below 5%). Additionally, the validation stage consisted of residual analysis confirmed the accuracy of both models. The GHG part estimates the change of carbon dioxide emissions based on fuel consumption, which represents the tailpipe emissions.
Kroyan, Yuri, Wojcieszyk, Michal, Larmi, Martti, Kaario, Ossi, Zenger, Kai
Oxidation of Soybean Biodiesel Fuel in Diesel Engine Oils04-12-03-001512/5/2019
Abstract During diesel engine operation, some fuel is entrained in engine oil, particularly as a consequence of strategies to regenerate NOx traps or particle filters. This “fuel dilution” of oil can adversely affect engine oil properties and performance. Compared to diesel fuel, biodiesel is more prone to fuel dilution and more susceptible to oxidation. Oxidation stability experiments were conducted at 160°C using a modified Rapid Small-Scale Oxidation Test (RSSOT) and a Rancimat instrument with 0, 5, 10, and 20 wt% biodiesel in four fully formulated engine oils, two partially formulated engine oils, and two base oils. These experiments showed decreasing oxidation stability with increasing biodiesel content. An exception was noted with the least stable oils (two base oils and one engine oil) in which 5 wt% biodiesel improved the oxidation stability relative to oil without biodiesel. Experiments with biodiesel distillation fractions identified this stability enhancement within the least volatile biodiesel fraction, consistent with natural antioxidants in the biodiesel. Omission of two engine oil additives, antioxidants and zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDP), led to an unexpected increase in oxidation stability (with and without biodiesel). Time-series oxidation experiments at 160°C with one of the fully formulated engine oils, with and without 20 wt% biodiesel, demonstrated that the biodiesel caused greater oxidation instability and extent of oxidation, greater formation of peroxides and reduction in total base number (TBN), increased ester content, and higher density. Kinematic viscosity increased with aging time and eventually surpassed that of the engine oil aged without biodiesel. With extended aging time, the fully formulated engine oil containing biodiesel “broke,” forming black tar-like materials with high viscosity.
Ball, James C., Anderson, James E., Duckworth, Jacob A., Uy, Dairene, Wallington, Timothy J.
Emission Reduction of a Diesel Engine Fueled with Blends of Biofuel under the Influence of 1,4-Dioxane and Rice Husk Nano Particle2019-28-238711/21/2019
In this modern era increase in pollution became a huge impact on the lives of all living creatures, in this automobile tends to be one of the major contributors in terms of air pollution thanks to their exhaust emissions. The objective of the present study is to reduce the amount of harmful pollutants emitted from the automobiles by the utilization of a biofuel further influenced by two additives (liquid and a Nano additive). In this study, first the bio oil is extracted, then the biofuel is mixed with diesel fuel at different proportions of 20%, 40% by volume. Experiments are carried out in a common rail direct injection, diesel engine, which is a stationary test engine manufactured by Kirloskar, connected to a computer setup with an open control unit. The emission values in the exhaust gases are obtained using AVL exhaust gas analyzer. Then 0.1% of rice husk Nano additive addition with the fuel blend followed by 3%, 6% of 1, 4-Dioxane blended with the previous blend and its performance (BTE, BSFC) and emission (HC, CO, CO2, NOx, Smoke) values are tested. The values tabulated and compared for identifying the best blends of them all in terms of emission reduction. Performance of the engine reduced with the addition of the additives for about 4.3% compared with that of diesel fuel. And also, considerable reduction in emission was noticed for HC, CO, Smoke and even for NOx emission with the increase in 1,4-dioxane percentage. The addition of rice husk Nano particles aids in the reduction of emissions. The 40% blend along with 6% and 0.1% of 1,4-dioxane and rice husk shows the lowest possible emission. This comparative analysis helps in understanding the influence of the additives on the biodiesel blends. In addition, the outcome helps in determining the suitability of the combination considered here for use in vehicles without any major modifications.
P, Mebin Samuel, G, Devaradjane, Venkadesan, Gnanamoorthi, Josan, Santiago
Optimization of Bio-Diesel Fuel Filter Size Media and Configuration for Longer Service Interval2019-28-239111/21/2019
Bio diesel is one of the most promising fuel which can not only replace the conventional fuels but also environment friendly in terms of Greenhouse gases emission. Adaptation of Bio diesel comes with reduced maintainability and high maintenance cost. Blends of biodiesel and conventional diesel are most commonly used in automotive diesel engines. Biodiesel is most popular choice as an alternate fuel of fossil diesel due to its easy availability, eco-friendly nature and minimum change in existing diesel engine for retro fitment. In this paper efforts have been taken to optimize the life of Fuel filter for bio diesel application. For improving Fuel filter life, modifications carried out in Fuel filter media, size and configuration. Further, Fuel filter tested on Engine test bed and Vehicle to establish the life of filter in real world usage condition. Testing Results were compared with existing diesel fuel filter.
Soni, Gaurav, Bhargava, Aashish, Gavade, Sujit
Study of Advanced Control Based on the RBF Neural Network Theory in Diesel Engine Speed Control03-13-01-000510/14/2019
Abstract Based on radial basis function (RBF) neural network (NN) theory, RBF-Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) diesel engine speed control is proposed. The algorithm has strong self-learning ability and strong adaptive ability, and is able to optimize the control parameters of the speed loop controller in real time. A series of simulations are carried out with different initial weights. Simulation results reveal that initial weights have little effect on RBF-PID control performance. A STM32 MCU-based controller is developed according to the calculation requirement. Experiments are carried out on a D6114 diesel engine generator to verify the proposed speed control algorithm. The simulation results are in agreement with the experimental results. The results show that the influence of initial weights on RBF-PID control algorithm is smaller than that on BP-PID control algorithm. When RBF-PID control algorithm is adopted, the steady speed fluctuation rate is 0.4%. When sudden load is carried out, the speed recovery time is 2.1 s and the instantaneous adjustment rate is 4.93%. When sudden unload simulation is carried out, the speed recovery time is 2.2 s and the instantaneous adjustment rate is 5.27%. Speed control performance of diesel engine has been greatly improved.
Zhao, Guo-Feng, Long, Yun, Ding, Shun-Liang, Yang, Li-Ping, Song, En-Zhe, Ma, Xiu-Zhen
Influence of Addition of Ethanol into Non-Edible Biodiesel from Rice Bran Oil on the Properties and Performance - An Experimental Study in Direct Injection VCR Diesel Engine2019-28-016010/11/2019
Non-edible oil biodiesels and alcohols are the two major liquid fuel sources available to replace diesel to fuel compression ignition engine. This study is to investigate the solubility, properties and performance of biodiesel from non-edible rice bran oil and ethanol. Solubility test was conducted in three different temperatures 50C, 150C& room temperature (300C approximately). The stable blends were tested for essential properties such as energy content, cetane number, kinematic viscosity, heat of vaporisation, flash point and oxygen content as per ASTM standards. Biodiesel- ethanol blends containing 30% of ethanol was found stable up to 50C. This blend also met the minimum requirement with respect to properties to fuel compression ignition engine. These blends were tested in compression ignition engine for performance, combustion and emission characteristics in various load conditions under two compression ratios (17,1 & 18,1). Results showed that the compression ratio 18:1 was found suitable for the optimal blend. This blend produced brake thermal efficiency, peak incylinder pressure, peak heat release rate, hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and smoke similar to that of diesel. However, ignition delay & emission of oxides of nitrogen produced by this blend was found slightly higher compared to diesel.
Balasubramanian, Prabakaran, Shanmuga Sundaram, Padmanaba Sundar, Manoharan, Hemakumar
All options on the table19TOFHP10_0310/1/2019
Powertrain developers who spoke at SAE COMVEC are leaving no stone unturned in their quest to trim emissions. The push to trim engine emissions is prompting industry-wide efforts to use substitutes for diesel fuel. Alternative fuels and electrified powertrains are making significant inroads, though design teams for diesel power aren't conceding the future. A number of paths for fueling the future were recently examined by a range of panelists at SAE COMVEC Technology Connection in Indianapolis. Alternative fuels including gasoline and natural gas will provide short-term solutions, while electrified powertrains make headway in more applications.
Costlow, Terry
Characterization of Deposits Collected from Plugged Fuel Filters2019-24-01409/9/2019
Fuel filters serve as a safety belt for modern compression ignition engines. To meet the requirements from environmental regulations these engines use the common rail injection system, which is highly susceptible to contamination from the fuel. Furthermore, the public awareness towards global warming is raising the need for renewable fuels such as biodiesel. An increased fuel variety brings a higher requirement for fuel filters as well. To better understand the process of filtration, awareness of the different possible contaminants from the field is needed. This study used several chemical characterization techniques to examine the deposits from plugged fuel filters collected from the field. The vehicle was run with a biodiesel blend available on the market. The characterization techniques included X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) joined with attenuated total reflectance (ATR) sampling, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and lastly thermal gravimetric analyzer combined with FTIR and a GC-MS (TGA/FTIR/GC-MS). In addition the remaining ash from TGA was measured in energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Deposits were scraped from the used filter, and prepared for the different analytic methods. After cleaning the deposits with different solvents, GC-MS identified the traces of glycerol and sterols in the filter. After a transesterification reaction GC-MS could identify carboxylates corresponding to degraded biodiesel. The TGA/FTIR/GC-MS revealed the presence of polymeric compounds in the deposit. XRF did not require any previous cleaning, and was used to identify different metals present in the deposits. The mentioned deposits are characterized as soft particles, and could originate from the impurities of biodiesel, presence of engine oils, or degradation of the fuel. The presented results help to better understand the current concerns with the on-board filtration of fuels, and can help to create more robust fuel systems in the future.
Csontos, Botond, Bernemyr, Hanna, Erlandsson, Anders Christiansen, Forsberg, Oscar, Pach, Mayte, Hittig, Henrik
Biogenous Ethanol: CO 2 Savings and Operation in a Dual-Fuel Designed Diesel Engine2019-24-00409/9/2019
The usage of ethanol and two different mixtures of ethanol and gasoline (E85 and E65) wаs investigated on a modified diesel engine designed to work in a dual-fuel combustion mode with intake manifold alcohol injection. The maximum ratio of alcohol to diesel fuel was limited by irregular combustion phenomena like degrading combustion quality and poor process controllability at low load and knock as well as auto-ignition at high load. With rising alcohol amount, a significant reduction of soot mass and particle number was observed. At some testing points, substituting diesel with ethanol, E65 or E85 led to a reduction of NOx emissions; however, the real benefit concerning the nitrogen oxides was introduced by the mitigation of the soot-NOx trade-off. The indicated engine efficiency in dual-fuel mode showed an extended tolerance against high EGR rates. It was significantly improved with enhanced substitution ratios at high loads, whereas it dropped at low loads. A simulation model was built for the test engine and selected operation points of the engine test bed measurements were implemented into the model in order to generate an efficiency loss analysis. The discussion of the simulation results allowed a better understanding of the findings of the engine test stand experiments. Substituting diesel with intake manifold injected alcoholic fuels impressively lowered the engine CO2 emissions at medium and high loads. A case study of the bioethanol production by the Austrian bioethanol producer AGRANA demonstrated the high ability of bioethanol to reduce the holistic well-to-wheel CO2 emissions of the dual-fuel powered diesel engine.
Damyanov, Aleksandar Aleksandrov, Hofmann, Peter
Low- to High-Temperature Reaction Transition in a Small-Bore Optical Gasoline Compression Ignition (GCI) Engine03-12-05-00318/19/2019
Abstract This study shows the development of low-temperature and high-temperature reactions in a gasoline-fuelled compression ignition (GCI) engine realizing partially premixed combustion for high efficiency and low emissions. The focus is how the ignition occurs during the low- to high-temperature reaction transition and how it varies due to single- and double-injection strategies. In an optically accessible, single-cylinder small-bore diesel engine equipped with a common-rail fuel injection system, planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) imaging of formaldehyde (HCHO-PLIF), hydroxyl (OH-PLIF), and fuel (fuel-PLIF) has been performed. This was complemented with high-speed imaging of combustion luminosity and chemiluminescence imaging of cool flame and OH*. The diagnostics were performed for two different fuels including conventional diesel as a reference case and then a kerosene-based jet fuel which is a low-ignition quality fuel with cetane number of 30, firstly with single near top dead center (TDC) injection and then a double-injection strategy implementing very early injection and late injection in the same engine. For diesel combustion, it is shown that the cool-flame and HCHO signals appear from the jet axis before spreading downstream towards the bowl wall. The OH radicals present in the high-temperature reaction zones also show a similar development pattern with distinctive reaction zones forming from the jet axis and then near the bowl wall for each nozzle hole. When the reactions occur near the bowl wall, the HCHO and OH radicals coexist. Later, the high-reaction zones merge with each other due to jet-wall and jet-jet interactions. In comparison, the single-injection GCI combustion shows HCHO signals appearing from the bowl-wall region due to extended ignition delay. The OH radicals develop out of this HCHO region and show a more sequential development pattern than diesel combustion. The single-injection GCI also involves multiple ignition kernels that progressively merge to form larger reaction zones. The double-injection GCI combustion has higher charge premixing than the other cases, and due to very early first injection, the mixture homogeneity is also much higher. This is evidenced by a higher consumption rate of HCHO and faster development of OH across the entire reaction zones, indicating faster low- to high-temperature reaction transition. These fundamental findings explain why GCI combustion generates less soot and NO than diesel combustion as well as how double-injection GCI combustion achieves better low-load stability than the single-injection.
Goyal, Harsh, Zhang, Yilong, Kook, Sanghoon, Kim, Kenneth S., Kweon, Chol-Bum
Investigation into the Tribological Properties of Biodiesel-Diesel Fuel Blends Under the Run-In Period Conditions04-12-02-00096/25/2019
Lubricity is a very important issue for diesel fuel injectors and pumps (of an engine) that are lubricated by the fuel itself. Biodiesel as an alternative fuel has a number of technical advantages compared to conventional diesel. It is required to perform more research about the tribological behavior of biodiesel blends under run-in period conditions at different rotational speeds. Friction characteristics of biodiesel (mixture of sunflower and soybean methyl ester) were studied by using a four-ball wear testing machine. Results indicated that the friction was reduced with the increase in rotational speed under the run-in period conditions. Moreover, the results showed that the friction coefficient decreases at rotational speeds of 600 and 900 rpm as the proportion of biodiesel increases in the fuel blend. This is due to higher viscosity of biodiesel and the presence of free fatty acids and monoglyceride and diglyceride components in this fuel, which improve the lubricity properties of the fuel blends. However, the coefficient of friction of the fuel blends that contained more biodiesel (B50 and B100) increased at rotational speeds of 1200 and 1500 rpm as a result of reduced fuel viscosity, oxidation, and moisture absorption in a higher temperature condition. So it was concluded that the better tribology performance belongs to B20 at higher rotational speeds.
Amiri Nazari Barsari, Mahmoud, Shirneshan, Alireza
Knock and Pre-Ignition in Spark-Ignition Engine Fuelled by Different Blends of Jojoba Bio-Gasoline with Kerosene2019-01-50465/17/2019
In the present article, the knock tendency and pre-ignition resistance (PIR) were determined experimentally for different blends of kerosene and jojoba bio-gasoline. The effects of varying equivalence ratios, rotational speed, inlet air temperature and pressure, and ignition timing on knock tendency and PIR were investigated. The influence of compression ratio on PIR was also studied. Jojoba bio-gasoline was synthesized using transesterification method through performing a chemical reaction between well-stirred jojoba raw oil and alcohol. Experiments were carried out on a Ricardo E6/MS variable compression ratio spark-ignition (SI) engine fuelled by jojoba bio-gasoline/kerosene blends of volumetric percentages of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% jojoba bio-gasoline. The onset of pre-ignition and knock were detected by observing the pressure oscillations using a piezoelectric pressure transducer, a synchronizing magnetic sensor, and a degree-marking probe. The results showed that increasing the percentage of bio-gasoline in the blends with kerosene leads to a significant increase in PIR and a remarkable decrease in the knock tendency. This will lead to the design of a more efficient engine by increasing its compression ratio when fuelled by jojoba bio-gasoline. Analytical correlations were developed to assess the knock tendency and PIR for different fuel blends taking into consideration the various design and operating variables.
Radwan, M.S., Attai, Youssef A., Hassan, Y.I.
Development of the TOP TIER TM Diesel Standard2019-01-02644/2/2019
The TOP TIERTM Diesel fuel standard was first established in 2017 to promote better fuel quality in marketplace to address the needs of diesel engines. It provides an automotive recommended fuel specification to be used in tandem with regional diesel fuel specifications or regulations. This fuel standard was developed by TOP TIERTM Diesel Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) sponsors made up of representatives of diesel auto and engine manufacturers. This performance specification developed after two years of discussions with various stakeholders such as individual OEMs, members of Truck and Engine Manufacturers Association (EMA), fuel additive companies, as well as fuel producers and marketers. This paper reviews the major aspects of the development of the TOP TIERTM Diesel program including implementation and market adoption challenges. Various fuel properties of concerns from OEMs perspective are discussed, and details of the TOP TIER TM Diesel standard, including the test methods and corresponding limits, are described.
Lopes, Shailesh Martin, Sigelko, Jenny, Monroe, Rebecca, Kozub, Daniel, Morris, Jeanelle, Kunselman, Michael
Screening of Potential Biomass-Derived Streams as Fuel Blendstocks for Mixing Controlled Compression Ignition Combustion2019-01-05704/2/2019
Mixing controlled compression ignition, i.e., diesel engines are efficient and are likely to continue to be the primary means for movement of goods for many years. Low-net-carbon biofuels have the potential to significantly reduce the carbon footprint of diesel combustion and could have advantageous properties for combustion, such as high cetane number and reduced engine-out particle and NOx emissions. We developed a list of over 400 potential biomass-derived diesel blendstocks and populated a database with the properties and characteristics of these materials. Fuel properties were determined by measurement, model prediction, or literature review. Screening criteria were developed to determine if a blendstock met the basic requirements for handling in the diesel distribution system and use as a blend with conventional diesel. Criteria included cetane number ≥40, flashpoint ≥52°C, and boiling point or T90 ≤338°C. Blendstocks needed to be soluble in diesel fuel, have a toxicity no worse than conventional diesel, not be corrosive, and be compatible with fuel system elastomers. Additionally, cloud point or freezing point below 0°C was required. Screening based on blendstock properties produced a list of 12 that were available as fuels or reagent chemicals or could be synthesized by biofuels production researchers. This group included alkanes, alcohols, esters, and ethers. These candidates were further examined for their impact fuel properties upon blending with a conventional diesel fuel. Blend properties included cetane number, lubricity, conductivity, oxidation stability, and viscosity. Results indicate that all 12 candidates can meet the basic requirements for diesel fuel blending, although in some cases would require additive treatment to meet requirements for lubricity, conductivity, and oxidation stability.
Fioroni, Gina, Fouts, Lisa, Luecke, Jon, Vardon, Derek, Huq, Nabila, Christensen, Earl, Huo, Xiangchen, Alleman, Teresa, McCormick, Robert, Kass, Michael, Polikarpov, Evgueni, Kukkadapu, Goutham, Whitesides, Russell A.
48V Mild-Hybrid Architecture Types, Fuels and Power Levels Needed to Achieve 75g CO2/km2019-01-03664/2/2019
48V mild hybrid powertrains are promising technologies for cost-effective compliance with future CO2 emissions standards. Current 48V powertrains with integrated belt starter generators (P0) with downsized engines achieve CO2 emissions of 95 g/km in the NEDC. However, to reach 75 g/km, it may be necessary to combine new 48V powertrain architectures with alternative fuels. Therefore, this paper compares CO2 emissions from different 48V powertrain architectures (P0, P1, P2, P3) with different electric power levels under various driving cycles (NEDC, WLTC, and RTS95). A numerical model of a compact class passenger car with a 48V powertrain was created and experimental fuel consumption maps for engines running on different fuels (gasoline, Diesel, E85, CNG) were used to simulate its CO2 emissions. The simulation results were analysed to determine why specific powertrain combinations were more efficient under certain driving conditions. As expected, the greatest influence on emissions was from powertrain architectures. Increased electric power levels (from 8 kW to 20 kW) allowed more brake energy to be recovered, reducing CO2 emissions by 2 - 16% depending on the driving cycle. The P2 and P3 architectures with even low electric motor power level offered substantially better fuel efficiency (by 19% on average) than a conventional powertrain with a start-stop system, whereas the P0/P1 architectures offered average improvements of only 4% for different power levels and driving cycles. In the P0 and P1 architectures, engine friction severely limited energy recovery during braking and made electric propulsion infeasible due to significantly increased power demands. The P2 and P3 architectures allow the engine to be decoupled from the powertrain and so avoid this problem. Overall, the 48V P2/P3 powertrains allowed for significant improvements in CO2 emissions when used with CNG, E85 or diesel fuel. 75 g/km target value was predicted to be achievable with CNG-fuelled systems under the NEDC and WLTC cycles, and possibly even under RTS95 on a well-to-wheel basis when using a renewable fuel such as E85.
Melaika, Mindaugas, Mamikoglu, Sarp, Dahlander, Petter
The Effect of Cerium Oxide Nano Particles Fuel Additive on Performance, Combustion, NOx Reduction and Nano Particle Emission of Karanja and Jatropha Biodiesel in a Military 585 kW CIDI Engine2019-01-02624/2/2019
Rapid depletion of petroleum reserves, stringent emission legislations and global warming has given us an opportunity to find biodiesel as an alternative to diesel fuel. Biodiesel is a biogradable, renewable, sulphur free, non-toxic, and oxygenated green fuel. Recent emission legislations have also restricted the nano particles emission in addition to particulate matter, due to their adverse impact on health. Karanja and Jatropha oils are non-edible vegetable oils. Karanja and Jatropha oil methyl ester biodiesel are prepared by the process of transesterification. Biodiesel emits lesser gaseous emission as compared to diesel fuel. However, the only major concern in the use of biodiesel is that it increases NOx emission. Nano particle fuel additive is one of the essential techniques to overcome the NOx emission drawback of biodiesel. In the present study, the engine performance and emission of CO, UHC, NOx and PM including nano particle emission, were compared for diesel, Karanja and Jatropha oil biodiesel with Cerium Oxide nano particles fuel additive, in a 12-cylinder, 585 kW, CIDI military heavy-duty diesel engine. The experimental results showed that engine performance with Karanja and Jatropha oil biodiesel with fuel additive, increased by 3-4%, along with lower gaseous emission including 15% - 25% lower NOx emission and lower nano particles emission, as compared to mineral diesel fuel.
Pandey, Anand Kumar, Nandgaonkar, Milankumar, Suresh, S, Varghese, Anil
Experimental Investigations of Metal Oxide Nano-Additives on Working Characteristics of CI Engine2019-01-07944/2/2019
Biodiesel is a potential substitute for diesel and extensive research is carried in India on production and utilization of biodiesel from a variety of edible/non-edible, animal fat and waste oils. However, issues like stability, clogging, increased NOx, and high consumption rate etc. are some of the critical issues which are associated with long-term use of these alternative fuels in a diesel engine. The recent developments in science and technology may have concreted a method to create nano measure vigorous resources that have incredible benefits to micron sized constituents. Nano liquids may be a fresh period of compact-fluid complex constituents comprising of nano sized concrete elements disseminated into a base liquid. The present study investigates the effect of doping metal oxides nanoparticles with waste fish oil-based biodiesel. For the present study, the blends of fuel are prepared by using 30ppm each of titanium dioxide and alumina nanoparticles respectively. The addition of nano-additives in biodiesel is achieved using an ultra sonicator, to achieve unvarying postponement. A series of experiments have been conducted to evaluate the performance and emission characteristics of single cylinder direct injection (DI) diesel engine with four different energy samples containing biodiesel-diesel (B20), biodiesel-diesel-nano particles (B20Ti30), (B20Al30) and biodiesel-nano particles (B20Ti30Al30). Thermo-physical assets of the energy examples, including density, viscosity along with calorific values are also determined.
Mukhopadhyay, Subham, Malhotra, Aahan, Tomar, Mukul, Choudhary, Naman, Kumar, Naveen
Performance Emissions and Combustion Analysis of CI Engine Using Ethyl Ester Kusum Oil and Butanol Blends2019-01-05684/2/2019
Globalization, urbanization and industrialization have paved the way for manufacturing activities and production, maintaining standards and competition which have eventually resulted in skyrocketing fuel prices, a drastic increase in carbon emissions as well as exhaustion of petroleum resources at an alarming level. Multiple researchers have therefore explored alternative fuels for diesel engines. Industries have time and again proven to develop technologies that have not only reduced the emissions produced in combustion engines but have also increased their efficiency, power and fuel economy. Using alternative fuels can also aid in reducing air pollution. Biodiesel is an alternative, renewable and biodegradable fuel which can significantly reduce emissions in an automobile and push the economical, sustainable and smart growth of the country. Kusum (Schleichera oleosa) oil still has great potential which must be realized. In this paper, the research efforts are directed towards improving the performance of C.I. engine using ethyl ester Kusum oil (Vegetable oil) and butanol blended with diesel as a fuel. No modification in the engine was needed in order to use this blend. The performance of a single-cylinder, four stroke, Compression Ignition engine was studied using Kusum oil ethyl ester and its blend with diesel, having the engine being operated at various loading conditions with water cooling system. Four samples were prepared with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% butanol in Kusum oil ethyl ester(v/v) and were named as B5KOEE95, B10KOEE90, B15KOEE85 and B20KOEE80. Engine performance factors namely BTE, BSFC and emissions of CO, CO2, unburnt HC, NOx were measured and analyzed among diesel, KOEE100, B5KOEE95, B10KOEE90, B15KOEE85 and B20KOEE80.
Singh, Vishal, Agarwal, Tanmay, Saroha, Nivedika, Gautam, Raghvendra
Gasoline fuels growing number of commercial vehicles19TOFHP04_094/1/2019
Biodiesel may be the top alternative fuel for work truck fleets, according to the 2019 Fleet Purchasing Outlook Survey conducted by the National Truck Equipment Association (NTEA), but another “alt fuel” is gaining momentum in certain commercial vehicle (CV) segments: good old gasoline. Survey respondents listed biodiesel, at 16%, as their top alternative, followed by E85 and electric hybrid trucks, including plug-in hybrids. Extended range electric and propane/autogas both increased usage compared to 2018 results.
Gehm, Ryan
Advances in Partial Oxidation of Palm Oil Based Biodiesel Reforming to Hydrogen Production for Diesel Engine Applications2019-01-14123/25/2019
The aims of this research is investigate the hydrogen production via biodiesel fuel partial oxidation reforming. Hydrogen production can enhance combustion in cylinder and improved aftertreatment activities. A reforming reaction is when a chemical reacts with oxygen available in exhaust gas and diesel fuel injection. The 2%Pt-1%Rh-CeO2-ZrO2/γ-Al2O3 was selected as the active catalyst in this research. This study investigates the effect of gas space velocity (SV) (e.g., 10k h-1 and 16k h-1) and fuel addition flow rate (10-30 ml/h) on hydrogen production efficiency. As can be seen that the hydrogen from reforming reaction was promoted under the real engine operating conditions. Hydrogen is produced via partial oxidation of hydrocarbons reforming. The effects of space velocity SV (h−1) and hydrocarbon addition, which enhanced energy input for the reforming process, are the main effect on hydrogen production over the reforming catalyst. The maximum hydrogen yield are achieved 11%. In the future, hydrogen production via partial oxidation fuel reforming could be developed for production of hydrogen on-board the vehicle.
Theinnoi, Kampanart, Sawatmongkhon, Boonlue, Temwutthikun, Warirat, Wongchang, Thawatchai
Diffuse Back-Illuminated Extinction Imaging of Soot: Effects of Beam Steering and Flame Luminosity2019-01-00111/15/2019
This study presents diagnostic development of diffuse back-illuminated extinction imaging of soot. The method provides high temporal and spatial resolution of the line-of-sight optical density of soot (KL) in compression-ignited fuel sprays relevant to automotive applications. The method is subjected to two major sources of error, beam steering effects and broadband flame luminosity effects. These were investigated in detail in a direct injection combustion chamber with diesel fuel, under high and low sooting conditions. A new method for correcting flame luminosity effects is presented and involves measuring the flame luminosity using a separate high-speed camera via a beam splitter. The new method and existing methods are applied and the resulting flame luminosity correction errors are compared. The new method yields 50% lower errors than the most promising method (optical flow method). The impact on KL was investigated, showing that the KL uncertainty when using the optical flow method is unbounded for KL values above 2.7, while the new method has an uncertainty of 0.5 for the maximum KL value of 3.8. The new method yields overall lower uncertainties and is more suited to measuring KL in optical thick conditions. Large refractive index gradients in the path of the incident light cause false attenuation, resulting in ambiguity of the measured KL, referred to as beam steering. A detailed investigation of the beam steering effects caused by the non-uniformities in the diffused light source was performed. A beam steering model was made and qualitatively validated from experiments. The results from the beam steering model showed the importance of having a large collection angle, in order to average out small-scale non-uniformities in the light source. The model also showed that large-scale non-uniformities in the light source could affect the measurement even if the collection angle is large.
Bjørgen, Karl Oskar Pires, Emberson, David Robert, Lovas, Terese
Contaminants Affecting the Formation of Soft Particles in Bio-Based Diesel Fuels during Degradation2019-01-00161/15/2019
Renewable fuels are essential in the field of heavy duty transportation if we are to reach a fossil-free society in the foreseeable future. However renewable diesel fuels based on fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) might face problems with degradation and with cold flow properties. From the perspective of an engine, this may cause problems in the fuel injection system, such as fuel filter clogging and injector deposits. These phenomena, especially fuel filter clogging, can be connected to gel-like soft particles, which could originate from degradation products as well as from byproducts created during biodiesel refining. In this study, soft particles from the degradation of bio-based diesel fuel were examined. The tested fuels included hydrogenated vegetable oils (HVO), rapeseed methyl ester (RME) and 10% blend of rapeseed methyl ester with standard diesel (B10). To test their potential to increase the formation of soft particles, contaminants such as water, metals and engine oil were included in the degradation methods. The formed insoluble products were analyzed with gravimetric means, scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDX) and spectroscopy methods (FTIR). The results showed different behavior for each of the tested fuels. B10 was shown to be the most problematic, with the creation of gel-like soft particles. RME was less prone to create particles, probably due to its good solubility properties. HVO created the least sediments, possibly due to its high stability. According to the FTIR measurements, the captured insoluble sediments mainly consisted of polymerized oxidation products, acids and metal carboxylic ions. The type of metal influenced the chemical composition and the amount of insoluble sediment. Engine oil caused an increase in the amount of sediments. However the results also suggest that oil has a dampening effect for reactions between metals, water and fuels.
Csontos, Botond, Alim, Richard, Bernemyr, Hanna, Hittig, Henrik, Pach, Mayte
Simulation and Measurement of Transient Fluid Phenomena within Diesel Injection2019-01-00661/15/2019
Rail pressures of modern diesel fuel injection systems have increased significantly over recent years, greatly improving atomisation of the main fuel injection event and air utilisation of the combustion process. Continued improvement in controlling the process of introducing fuel into the cylinder has led to focussing on fluid phenomena related to transient response. High-speed microscopy has been employed to visualise the detailed fluid dynamics around the near nozzle region of an automotive diesel fuel injector, during the opening, closing and post injection events. Complementary computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations have been undertaken to elucidate the interaction of the liquid and gas phases during these highly transient events, including an assessment of close-coupled injections. Microscopic imaging shows the development of a plug flow in the initial stages of injection, with rapid transition into a primary breakup regime, transitioning to a finely atomised spray and subsequent vaporisation of the fuel. During closuring of the injector the spray collapses, with evidence of swirling breakup structures together with unstable ligaments of fuel breaking into large slow-moving droplets. This leads to sub-optimal combustion in the developing flame fronts established by the earlier, more fully-developed spray. The simulation results predict these observed phenomena, including injector surface wetting as a result of large slow-moving droplets and post-injection discharge of liquid fuel. This work suggests that post-injection discharges of fuel play a part in the mechanism of the initial formation, and subsequent accumulation of deposits on the exterior surface of the injector. For multiple injections, opening events are influenced by the dynamics of the previous injection closure; these phenomena have been investigated within the simulations.
Gold, Martin, Pearson, Richard, Turner, Jack, Sykes, Dan, Stetsyuk, Viacheslav, de Sercey, Guillaume, Crua, Cyril, Murali-Girija, Mithun, Koukouvinis, Foivos, Gavaises, Manolis
Assessing the Impact of FAME and Diesel Fuel Composition on Stability and Vehicle Filter Blocking2019-01-00491/15/2019
In recent years, there has been an impetus in the automotive industry to develop newer diesel injection systems with a view to reducing fuel consumption and emissions. This development has led to hardware capable of higher pressures, typically up to 2500 bar. An increase in pressure will result in a corresponding increase in fuel temperature after compression with studies showing changes in fuel temperatures of up to 150 °C in 1000-2500 bar injection systems. Until recently, the addition of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters, FAME, to diesel had been blamed for a number of fuel system durability issues such as injector deposits and fuel filter blocking. Despite a growing acceptance within the automotive and petrochemical industries that FAME is not solely to blame for diesel instability, there is a lack of published literature in the area, with many studies still focusing on FAME oxidation to explain deposit formation and hardware durability. The majority of studies into diesel degradation are conducted under non-representative laboratory conditions, or are extrapolated from the deposits found in filters from vehicles with failed injectors. In this study, the cause of this degradation was investigated by using a novel High Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) non-firing rig designed to mimic a diesel common rail system, simulating realistic, albeit accelerated, operating conditions. The degree of deposition on the system fuel filter was monitored, for both petroleum diesel (B0), RF79 (B0), Bx (where x is percentage volume/volume of FAME) and surrogate diesel fuel components. A systematic study of synthetic surrogates demonstrated that, as well as FAME, any base fuel component, under sufficiently high pressures and temperatures experienced in the HPCR are prone to degradation irrespective of the concentration of the component in the original fuel. The most unstable component acts as the instigator, thus promoting fuel oxidation. The other components in the fuel such as FAME, aromatic and cycloalkane portions will also oxidise and eventually polymerise to form solids blocking the filter. This also demonstrates that while a large body of work on the oxidative instability of biodiesel in the chemical laboratory is indicative of instability this does not mimic what is seen under more realistic vehicle conditions and the focus on FAME instability is misleading.
Gopalan, Kesavan, Chuck, Christopher J., Roy-Smith, Christopher, Bannister, Christopher D.
Combustion Characteristics of Cottonseed Biodiesel and Chicken Fat Biodiesel Mixture in a Multi-Cylinder Compression Ignition Engine2019-01-00151/15/2019
Although waste animal fats such as chicken fat are promising alternative energy sources, biodiesels produced from these type of feedstocks hardly satisfies the EN14214 biodiesel standards. In this study, biomixtures were prepared by blending cottonseed biodiesel and chicken rendering fat biodiesel which were produced via transesterification method. Biodiesels were blended with each other at 60/40, 50/50 and 30/70 volume ratios to produce CO60CH40, CO50CH50 and CO30CH70 fuels. First, fuel properties of the neat biodiesels and novel biomixtures were measured and compared to European biodiesel standards and diesel. Then, the engine performance, combustion characteristics and exhaust emissions of these novel biomixture fuels were measured in a three-cylinder indirect injection diesel engine under various engine loads and at constant speed of 1500 rpm. The fuel characterisation showed that CO60CH40 and CO50CH50 biomixtures met the European standards. The Brake Specific Energy Consumption (BSEC) and Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) of all biomixtures were comparable with CO100, CH100 and diesel at the full engine load. The combustion results revealed that the maximum in-cylinder pressure and energy release values of the CO50CH50 were 4.2% and 4.4% higher than the diesel at full engine load because of optimised fuel properties of biomixture such as molecular structure, viscosity, cetane number and iodine value. CO50CH50 had 2.9% reduced CO2 and comparable CO emission compared to diesel, which were also 5.6% and 13% lower than cottonseed biodiesel respectively. However, NO emission of CO50CH50 was found 3.8% and 5.8% higher than diesel and cottonseed biodiesel. A 6.5% reduction on NO emission was observed when CO60CH40 biomixture fuel was used instead of diesel. To conclude, this research showed that blending of cottonseed and chicken fat biodiesels is a promising approach to meet the EN14214 standards, improve in-cylinder pressure, optimise energy release and reduce exhaust emissions. Blending of different biodiesels will be tested as a future work.
Masera, K., Hossain, A. K.
Optical Diagnostics of Spray Characteristics and Soot Volume Fractions of n-Butanol, n-Octanol, Diesel, and Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil Blends in a Constant Volume Combustion Chamber2019-01-00191/15/2019
The effects of using n-butanol, n-octanol, fossil Diesel, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), and blends of these fuels on spray penetration, flame and soot characteristics were investigated in a high-pressure high-temperature constant volume combustion chamber designed to mimic a heavy duty Diesel engine. Backlight illumination was used to capture liquid and vapor phase spray images with a high-speed camera. The flame lift-off length (LOL) and ignition delay were determined by analyzing OH* chemiluminescence images. Laser extinction diagnostics were used to measure the spatially and temporally resolved soot volume fraction. The spray experiments were performed by injecting fuels under non-combusting (623 K) and combusting (823 K) conditions at a fixed ambient air density of 26 kg/m3. A Scania 0.19 mm single straight hole injector and Scania XPI common rail fuel supply system were used to produce injection pressures of 120 MPa and 180 MPa. To evaluate the effect of cetane number (CN) variation on combustion processes and soot emissions, di-tertiary-butyl peroxide (DTBP) was added to one blend to modify its CN without greatly altering its composition. The different fuels exhibited similar vapor phase penetration, but their liquid phase penetration varied significantly with the fuels’ physical properties. HVO exhibited the longest steady state liquid penetration. A fuel has a longer ignition delay, resulting in a longer flame lift-off length and thus a lower soot optical thickness and soot volume fraction distribution. Compared to Diesel fuel, n-butanol blends and n-octanol produced much lower soot emissions because of their oxygen content, lower stoichiometric A/F ratio, and high latent heat of vaporization.
Zhang, Tankai, Andersson, Mats, Munch, Karin, Denbratt, Ingemar
Future Fuels for DISI Engines: A Review on Oxygenated, Liquid Biofuels2019-01-00361/15/2019
Global warming and climate change have led to a greater interest in the implementation of biofuels in internal combustion engines. In spark ignited engines, biofuels have been shown to improve efficiency and knock resistance while decreasing emissions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particles. This study investigates the effect of biofuels on SI engine combustion through a graphical compilation of previously reported results. Experimental data from 88 articles were used to evaluate the trends of the addition of different biofuels in gasoline. Graphs illustrating engine performance, combustion phasing and emissions are presented in conjunction with data on the physiochemical properties of each biofuel component to understand the observed trends. Internal combustion engines have the ability to handle a wide variety of fuels resulting in a broad range of biofuel candidates. Three groups of oxygenated liquid biofuels were investigated in this review: alcohols, ethers and furans. While the investigated alcohols showcase properties associated with increased engine efficiencies (such as higher chemical knock resistance, greater charge cooling and faster laminar flame speeds). They also pose the challenge of greater fuel consumption due to lower energy densities than gasoline. Ethers and furans, on the other hand are favored by current engine designs as they exhibit properties (such as the energy density) closer to gasoline alongside increased chemical knock resistance. The compiled data summarizes the possibilities to improve efficiency and fuel economy for biofuel and binary blends in SI engines. However, the results also, show that some of the trends are more complex than anticipated. The effect of biofuels on combustion speed, regulated emissions and exhaust temperatures are not proven to be as self-evident as reported in previous studies. Results on multiple blends with focus on the effect of blending on properties would help improve the picture of the effect of future fuels on SI combustion.
Larsson, Tara, Stenlaas, Ola, Erlandsson, Anders
Comparison of Long-Chain Alcohol Blends, HVO and Diesel on Spray Characteristics, Ignition and Soot Formation2019-01-00181/15/2019
Spray characteristics of fossil Diesel fuel, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) and two oxygenated fuel blends were studied to elucidate the combustion process. The fuels were studied in an optically accessible high-pressure/high-temperature chamber under non-combusting (623 K, 4.69 MPa) and combusting (823 K, 6.04 MPa) conditions. The fuel blends contained the long-chain alcohol 2-ethylhexanol (EH), HVO and either 20 vol.% Diesel or 7 vol.% rapeseed methyl ester (RME) and were designed to have a Diesel-like cetane number (CN). Injection pressures were set to 120 MPa and 180 MPa and the gas density was held constant at 26 kg/m3. Under non-combusting conditions, shadow imaging revealed the penetration length of the liquid and vapor phase of the spray. Under combusting conditions, the lift-off length and soot volume fraction were measured by simultaneously recording time-resolved two-dimensional laser extinction, flame luminosity and OH* chemiluminescence images. The ignition delay and start of soot formation were also recorded. Under non-combusting conditions at both injection pressures, the liquid penetration length was higher for the blends and HVO compared to Diesel, whereas the vapor penetration length was similar for all fuels. Under combusting conditions, the liquid penetration length of all the tested fuels was similar. Despite different CNs, the ignition delay was similar for Diesel and HVO. The EH blends had an increased ignition delay compared to Diesel, despite having the same CN. The lift-off length was found to be highest for the blend containing the highest share of EH. In agreement with previously published scaling relations, the lift-off length increased with increasing injection pressure. The soot volume fraction was found to be lower for the blends, in agreement with engine studies.
Preuss, Josefine Kim, Munch, Karin, Andersson, Mats, Denbratt, Ingemar
Are Internal Diesel Injector Deposits (IDID) Mainly Linked to Biofuel Chemical Composition or/and Engine Operation Condition?2019-01-00611/15/2019
The increased use of alternative fuels has been linked to performance deterioration of injectors and engines as a result of internal diesel injector deposits (IDID). The present paper investigates fuel composition impact on injector tendency to blockage. Three main areas were investigated : (1) deposits linked to paraffins and aromatics content; (2) deposits linked to biodiesel composition using fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and hydrotreated vegetal oil (HVO); and (3) deposits linked to the presence of additives (Dodecenylsuccinic anhydride DDSA, Dodecenyl Succinimid DDSI and Sodium Naphthenate). A deposit formation method was developed for the injection bench in order to discriminate the impact of fuels on system performance in terms of fuel volume injected, injection duration and stability. Three operation conditions were tested to represent low, intermediate and high load. In addition, the influence of soaking time and injector heating temperature was evaluated. The nature of the deposit was studied based on its morphology and chemical composition determined using Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM/EDX) Spectroscopy. Deposits were observed for all fuels, even the highly paraffinic biofuel like HVO. Two main results are presented: Firstly, the main impact of fuel soaking period and high load operation on the occurrence of IDID, it was observed that deposit formation can be controlled by the time the fuel remains in contact with the hot metallic surface of the injector; Secondly, the complex correlation between deposit nature and characteristics and the injector’s tendency to blockage, for example, there is no straightforward link between deposit thickness and injector blockage, other parameters seem to be more appropriate to predict injector blockage. These are discussed in more detail in this study.
Alves Fortunato, Maira, Lenglet, Francis, Ben Amara, Arij, Starck, Laurie
Regulation vs. Field Data: Managing Fuel Quality2019-26-01571/9/2019
Unlike in the aviation and marine sector, fuel specification in the on-road transportation sector are varied depending on the countries. Globally, the countries are going towards ultra-low sulfur fuels. In developed countries including in EU and the U.S., ultra-low sulfur fuels have been used since 2005-2006. In Asia, Japan lead the region with less than 10 ppm sulfur fuels introduced into the market in January 2005. More than a decade later, fuels with high sulfur content are still sold in most countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Pacific. Facing pressure from environmentalists, these countries are focusing on sulfur reduction in their conventional fuels, along with improvement in their conventional fuels, along with improvement in their vehicle emission standards. On the other hand, in more advanced countries where they already have the cleanest possible conventional fuels, alternative fuels vehicles including electric vehicles are getting more attentions. Governments of developing countries are setting higher fuel quality standards to enable the implementation of more stringent vehicle emission standards. However, lack of fuel quality monitoring system in those countries results in the use of off-spec fuels. SGS worldwide market data delivers many examples. In the Philippines, 83% of premium plus gasoline samples have RON of 93 - 96.5 against the minimum requirement of 97 in the period of 2011-2017. Another example: 11.28 vol.% of methanol was found in a gasoline sample in 2016-2017 in the Philippines despite the specifications do not allow methanol to be present. One more example from Pakistan: the Manganese presence in all gasoline samples with concentration from 0.1 to 104 mg/kg in 2003-2017. Prolonged use of off-spec fuels will deteriorate exhaust emissions, damage the vehicles and worsen air quality. Therefore, a good understanding of fuel specifications and implementation of a good fuel quality monitoring system are needed to avoid severe productivity loss due to stalled vehicles on the road
Nurafiatin, Lucky
Assessment on Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engine Fuelled with Blends of Diesel, Algae Biodiesel and Heptanol2019-26-00911/9/2019
Because of higher NOx and PM emissions Compression Ignition (CI) engines are slowly being replaced by gas engines in metro cities though CI engine have better thermal efficiency and emit less Carbon monoxide (CO) and Unburned Hydrocarbons (UHC) emission than SI engines. Pollutants formed during combustion, depleting fossil fuels and continuous raising fuel price pushes the research community to find new alternative fuels which can be used along with diesel or replace the diesel without making major modifications in the current engine. The objective of this research work is to derive bio-diesel fuel from the source of algae and use it as a fuel by blending with commercially available diesel fuel. Heptanol is added along with algae bio-diesel and diesel blend to improve the ignition quality of the blend. Tests were conducted on a single cylinder constant speed, water cooled stationary diesel engine with different blends proportions of heptanol-biodiesel-diesel. The experimental results obtained for seven different types of blend proportions were compared with baseline diesel values. This research study reveals significant decrease in HC, CO, CO2 and NOx emission with marginal rise in smoke level. Amongst these seven samples, maximum of 14.7% NOx emission was reduced with S6 blend. At full load maximum Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) of 34.96% is also achieved with the same S6 blend which is a combination of 10% heptanol, 20% biodiesel and rest diesel. On overall comparison, sample S6 found to be better to operate in conventional diesel engine without any prior modification.
Saravanan, Supramani, Gupta, Sagar, Chidambaram, Rameshkumar, Jain, Aatmesh, Vora, Kamalkishore
Experimental Investigations on the Effect of Alcohol Addition on Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics of LPG Fuelled Lean Burn Spark Ignition Engine2019-26-00851/9/2019
Rising energy demands, ecological deterioration and diminution of fossil fuels has necessitated the researchers to search for alternatives. With alternate fuels like Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), hydrogen and alcohol based fuels, it is easier to substitute with the present engine without many alterations. Excellent chemical properties of these fuels make them favorable for lean burn operation which makes it a cost effective option to achieve goals of better fuel economy and controlled emissions. In this regard, experimental studies were carried out to examine the effects of LPG with different proportions of alcohols like ethanol and methanol (5, 10 and 20%) on the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a single cylinder SI engine operated at a constant speed of 1500 rpm with a optimized compression ratio of 10.5:1 under full throttle opening conditions at varying equivalence ratio. Devoted electronic manifold injection system was developed for alcohols while LPG was inducted and the blend ratio was calculated on energy basis. Experimental results show that 10% addition of alcohol (ethanol or methanol) to LPG exhibited significant improvement in brake power and brake thermal efficiency and extended the lean limit of operation, however, beyond 10% alcohol addition, no significant improvements were seen. It was observed that depending on the rate of alcohols increase in mixture, HC and NOx emission concentrations in the engine exhaust decreased. Since the experiments were carried out under lean operating ranges, CO emissions were negligible. Significant rise in peak in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate was observed with 10% alcohol addition. On the whole, experimental results suggest that LPG with 10% ethanol addition was best suited for manifold injection lean burn SI engine in terms of performance, emission and combustion characteristics when compared to other test blends.
Alexander, Jim, Porpatham, E, Krishnaiah, Ravi, Devunuri, Suresh, Jayapaul, Pradeep Bhasker, Wu, Zhen, Sumathy, Subramanian
Development of Diesel-Ethanol Engine for HCV2019-26-00891/9/2019
Diesel engines dominate in Heavy-Duty applications due to its better fuel economy, higher durability and larger reliability. Fuels derived from petroleum resources are depleting daily and it’s become a scarce resource for future generation to come. With growing environmental consciousness of the adverse implications brought by excessive usage of fossil fuels, the battle for finding alternative fuels as their substitution is getting heated up. At present, renewable energy from bio-fuels has been peddled as one of the most promising substitution for petroleum derived diesel. Using bio-ethanol blended diesel fuel for automobile can significantly reduce diesel usage and exhaust greenhouse gases. Bio-ethanol can be produced by alcoholic fermentation of sucrose or simple sugars. The main drawback is that ethanol is immiscible with diesel fuel over a wide range of temperatures, and the hygroscopic nature of ethanol leading to phase separation in blend. In present study diesel-ethanol blends commonly known as E-diesel are prepared with different Ethanol proportion such as 5%, 7.7%, 10%, 12.5% and 15%. The effect of each blend is studied for engine performance & emissions. The method for diesel-ethanol blend preparation with different additives to improve the stability, lubricity and combustion efficiency is established. The scope of work includes to find the effect of ethanol blended diesel fuel on the existing, in-use vehicles complying to BS III & BS IV norms. The optimized E-diesel blend will be further tested for engine durability to find out the long term effect on the engine performance and its effects on FIE with such kind of new upcoming cross blended fuel.
Sutar, Prasanna Suresh, Bandyopadhyay, Debjyoti, Sonawane, Shailesh, Rairikar, S D, Kavathekar, Kishorkumar, Thipse, Sukrut, Marathe, Neelkanth
Evaluation of Atomization Timing and Optimal Water Content for an Emulsified Fuel Droplet2018-32-005910/30/2018
The emulsified fuel means that it is mixed fuel with water and stabilized by surfactant. The difference of boiling points between fuel and water occur the secondary atomization during heating process. The water content strongly influence on the timing of secondary atomization(1). However, the water content is determined empirically. It means that it is the doubtful of compatibility fuel and a combustor. Then the emulsified fuel is needed the engineering evaluation (not empirically) to take advantage of sure secondary atomization. This research focuses on the timing and behavior of secondary atomization with an emulsified fuel droplet and the proposal of engineering evaluation. Moreover, we propose novel test method without the suspending wire to avoid heat transfer from itself. Namely, the novel point is heating process by floating in the high temperature silicone oil. This method can reveal the atomization behavior of a fuel droplet similar to the spray combustion. The measured data are waiting time of atomization and direct photos during heating process. The waiting time is fitted by Weibull plots which is a statistical treatment of reliability engineering. The inclination of Weibull plots means the timing of secondary atomization. This is the engineering evaluation on this research. The experimental results show the optimal water content of n-Hexadecane is 23%. If the fuel droplets have different timing of the secondary atomization, it is hard to control the combustion, for example, ignition delay, rate of heat release and so on. The typical experimental results show the inclination of Weibull plots converge to a point. This is mean that even various sizes of fuel droplets occur secondary atomization in the similar timing during heating process. The optimal water content of Bio diesel fuel is wide range under 30%. We propose the statistical evaluation to determine the optimal water content for practical emulsified fuel use.
Aoki, Junichi, Tanaka, Junya
Numerical Study of the Effect of Injection Strategy and Compression Ratio on Gasoline/Diesel Fueled RCCI Engine2018-32-001710/30/2018
RCCI engine is proven to have better combustion control and to produce very low NOx and soot emissions. However, its operations is limited by HRR and PPRR as well as weak combustion efficiency which results in high levels of HC and CO emissions. Engine geometry and operation parameter such as injection strategy and compression ratio can affect the reactivity of fuels in cylinders as well as the gas temperature increase rate which are the important factors in controlling RCCI combustion. Injection strategies such as single and double injections have been previously studied but the effects are still unpredictable and the effects of compression ratio towards combustion characteristic and emissions require further analysis. This work deploys a 3D computational fluid dynamic (CFD) combustion model to study the effects on combustion characteristic and emissions with respect to single injection, double injection strategy and compression ratio. The model is validated by comparing the simulation result with a previous experimental work. The results show that double injections can produce more extensive combustion propagation than single injection. This is because the second injection of diesel fuel which is more reactive creates steeper reactivity gradient and equivalence ratio gradient throughout the combustion chamber. This also results in lower NOx, soot, HC and CO compare to single injection strategy. Single injection strategy combustion depends on the reactivity gradient and equivalence ratio gradient of injected diesel fuel which need to be at the right levels or else the combustion propagation will be retarded. The study then shifted to study the effect of compression ratio on the best parameter of double injection strategy. The results show that the increase of compression ratio can further reduce soot, HC and CO to a very low level while NOx is observed to increase. Lowering compression ratio results in worsening HC and CO emission due to incomplete combustion of gasoline, The incomplete combustion is likely to be caused by low gas temperature increase rate.
Azmi, Muhammad Asyraf Mohd, Mansor, Mohd Radzi Abu, Wan Mahmood, Wan Mohd Faizal, Mohamad, Taib Iskandar
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