Browse Topic: Nickel-hydrogen batteries

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A Discussion on the Causes and Effects of Thermal Avalanche in Artificial Satellite Battery Charging and Discharging Systems2012-36-055810/2/2012
The supply of electrical power is one of the most important functions required by the diverse payloads of satellites. A fault in the corresponding subsystem might lead to mission or even vehicle loss. Among the causes of such faults, we highlight the phenomenon of thermal avalanche in batteries. It can be explained as an energetic unbalance where the rate of heat generated in the interior of the system exceeds its capacity to dissipate it. This occurred to the OAO1 of NASA just after its launch on April 8, 1966; and with the CBERS2 of CAST and INPE already in orbit in 2007 and 2009. This work presents a discussion on the causes and effects of thermal avalanches in artificial satellite battery charging and discharging systems. To do so it: 1) revises the literature on the known causes and effects; 2) develops a block diagram model for a battery charging and discharging system in artificial satellites, based on macroscopic principles which can be generalized to a wide variety of topologies and technologies of power supply and batteries; 3) discusses new causes and effects. Such discussion allows: 1) explains the thermal avalanche occurred to OAO1 and CBERS2; 2) estimate whether this will occur or not to other similar satellites as the CBERS3&4.
de Magalhaes, Renato Oliveira, de Oliveira e Souza, Marcelo Lopes
Temperature Characteristics of a Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fire2012-01-09824/16/2012
Recently, vehicles with high capacity traction batteries for driving such as Ni-MH, lithium-ion have come to be produced in the world. However, the damage has not been clarified in the case of these vehicles fire by a traffic accident or arson. In particular, lithium-ion cells in high temperature environment may cause a thermal runaway which emits smoke or flare. Therefore, it is necessary to examine what kinds of phenomena occur when a vehicle with a lithium-ion battery catches fire. In this paper, the authors studied the situation and temperature characteristics of a hybrid electric vehicle fire to investigate the temperature input to a lithium-ion battery on a vehicle. We assumed an accident that gasoline leaking from other vehicle would be spread under a vehicle and ignited. In a vehicle fire test, gasoline was spread under a hybrid electric vehicle without the traction battery instead of a vehicle with lithium-ion battery, and ignited. Thermocouple sensors were installed inside and under the vehicle. During the test, the situation of the vehicle fire was recorded by photos and videos. The authors got measurements of attainment times, continuation times and highest temperatures according to some criteria in this vehicle fire test.
Matsumura, Hideki, Itoh, Shinichiro, Matsushima, Kazuo, okada, Takeo
Thermal-Electrical Modeling and Adaptive Control of Battery Charge/Discharge Systems2010-36-027910/6/2010
The ever increasing complexity and integration of systems together with the explosive growth of electronics and computational communications have led to higher demands for energy, as recognized by the SAE ARP 4754 on complex or highly integrated systems. Electrical power conditioning and distribution is one of the vital functions in many types of systems, among which stands out the charging and discharging of batteries. In such systems, it's been known that incorrect handling can lead to thermal runway as already experienced in aerospace, aviation, automotive and portable consumer devices industries. In this article we intend to discuss and model a battery charging/discharging system currently in use in the CBERS (China-Brazil Earth Resource Satellite), to future develop an adaptive control that autonomously adjust control parameters as system degrades and operating conditions changes, in such a way that the thermal runway phenomenon is avoided, decreasing the risk of accidents and failures in that type of systems.
de Magalhaes, Renato Oliveira, de Oliveira e Souza, Marcelo
The Research on Fuzzy Logic Control Strategy of Synergic Electric System of Hybrid Electric Vehicle2007-01-34818/5/2007
Supercapacitor has the merits of low resistance and long lifecycle ability. When combined with battery, they can alleviate the burthen of battery, increase the battery's working efficiency and prolong its lifecycle. This paper introduces a control architecture based on balancing of SOC and algorithm based on fuzzy logic, Aiming at the two different cycles that have sufficient and insufficient energy that can be recovered from braking unlikely, this paper puts forward the methods of on-line adjusting fuzzy control parameters. Consequently, simulation was performed,and the results validate the effective adapting capacity of the control logic under different driving cycles.
Yu, Yuan-bin, Wang, Wei-hua, Zeng, Xiao-hua, Zhou, Nan, Wang, Qing-nian
Common/Dependent-Pressure-Vessel Nickel-Hydrogen BatteriesTBMG-9152/1/2003
The term "common/dependent pressure vessel" (C/DPV) denotes a proposed alternative configuration for a nickel-hydrogen battery. The C/DPV configuration is so named because it is a hybrid of two prior configurations called "common pressure vessel" (CPV) and "dependent pressure vessel" (DPV). The C/DPV configuration has been proposed as a basis for designing highly reliable, long-life Ni/H2-batteries and cells for anticipated special applications in which it is expected that small charge capacities will suffice and sizes and weights must be minimized.
Bipolar Metal Hydride Batteries for High Power and Aircraft Applications2000-01-362810/31/2000
Electro Energy, Inc. is developing high power long life bipolar nickel metal hydride batteries for Aircraft and other High Power Applications. The sealed wafer cell is the building block of the high power and voltage batteries making the assembly easy and cost effective. High power bipolar battery designs are ideal in applications where conventional battery use would require excessive capacity decreasing payload weight and volume. The bipolar nickel metal hydride design allows for high voltage designs with a 25% reduction in both weight and volume. Utilizing a sealed wafer cell design Electro Energy has demonstrated 1.2 KW/Kg and 1.9 KW/1.
Eskra, Mike, Klein, Marty, Plivelich, Robert
Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission 3A Thermal Timeline Analysis2000-01-22737/10/2000
This paper presents an overview of the thermal analysis and results of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Servicing Mission 3A (SM3A). The shuttle mission took place from December 19-27, 1999, with the servicing mission taking place December 21-25, 1999. During the mission, several components were replaced during three planned Extra Vehicular Activities (EVAs). Also, a New Outer Blanket Layer (NOBL) was installed on several bays to repair the damage to the Multi-layer Insulation (MLI) that was seen during Servicing Mission 2. The timeline analysis predicts temperatures for all HST installed hardware in order to determine if they will remain within their temperature limits for the duration of Servicing Mission 3A. The maximum electrical power required by the HST while attached to the Orbiter is predicted and compared to the documented maximum. The analysis is done using two models, the Forward Section of the HST including all equipment bays and Solar Arrays, and the Aft Shroud of the HST including all axial and radial instruments. The divisions of HST can be seen in Figure 1. Fourteen different HST and shuttle attitudes or orientations were analyzed and integrated into the thermal math models, as well as over one hundred instrument and electronics configuration changes incorporated as outlined in the mission timeline. The two models use the same orientations and mission timeline but the analysis is conducted separately using different thermal computer codes. The results of the preflight analysis have been documented for use during the mission, and will be compared to the mission actual temperatures.
Fasold, M.J., Mineo, C.E.
Improved Control of Charging Current for Ni/H BatteryTBMG-3006010/1/1999
In a proposed method of controlling the electric current supplied for charging a nickel/hydrogen battery, the rate of evolution of heat would be taken into account along with the electrical quantities (voltage, current, and/or charge as functions of time) that are traditionally taken into account. This method might also prove useful for controlling charging currents in batteries based on different chemistries.
New Energy Management Technology Gives Hybrid Cars Long Battery Life1999-01-24688/2/1999
New energy-and-power management technology makes low-pollution hybrid electric vehicles practical and competitive in performance with gasoline powered cars. The fuel-burning engine can now run at its most efficient speed and load, with the propulsion motor supplying acceleration power and the generator capturing deceleration power. Battery depth of discharge can be monitored and controlled to get long battery life. A heavy battery is not needed for long travel distance. For example, the new Toyota Prius hybrid car delivers 66 miles per gallon in city driving and has a range of 600 miles on a tankful of gasoline. When acceleration power is supplied from a battery, then the engine can be a high-efficiency type, such as the 43-percent efficient Meijer version of the Stirling-cycle engine. Hydrogen, a previously impractical engine fuel, can be burned in external-combustion Stirling engines. Hydrogen can now be compactly stored in carbon nano-tubes or lithium aluminum tetrahydride. A new electrolyzer can produce hydrogen with 93.2 percent efficiency. The energy in hydrogen made with 6-cents-per kWh electricity costs one-half the price of energy in gasoline.
Oman, Henry
Characterization and LEO Life Testing of Nickel-Hydrogen Cells for Space in SISP1999-01-25388/2/1999
The electrical and thermal performance of several 80Ah Nickel-hydrogen cells was characterized at different environment temperature, similar to that qualified and flown on the Hubble Space Telescope, also same to the cells designed and applied on the International Space Station. Seven 80Ah individual pressure vessel NiH2 cells have been subjected to real-time life cycle tests at 35%DOD, low earth orbit regimes. Some cells have been subjected to accelerated testing. According to performance testing results, the specific energy density of 80Ah NiH2 cells have been over 60Wh/ kg. Now the LEO life test have been continuously doing over 9200 cycles with good performance, the couloumbic efficiency has been stable across the cycle life at 98%(10,000cycles), the energy efficiency at 85%-90%. The large capacity satellites and space station would design the application of the NiH2 batteries for high performance and long life. Also, some 30Ah cells have been subjected to real-time life cycle tests at 30%DOD, LEO regimes. The life cycles have been running up to 15,000 and 22,000 for different cells with stable performance. The 6QN35 battery (6 Cells-35Ah in series) has been developed and tested on GEO regimes at 79%DOD for 40 eclipse seasons successfully, which can satisfy 15~20 years GEO satellites.
Zhou, Lirong, Zhu, Kai, Wu, Yongxian, Lu, Rong, Li, Guoxin
Bipolar Nickel Metal Hydride for Terrestrial Applications1999-01-25148/2/1999
The Nickel-Metal Hydride battery system has achieved significant market penetration for products requiring better performance characteristics than achievable with conventional lead acid and nickel-cadmium batteries. However, conventional prismatic and cylindrical designs for nickel-metal hydride cells and batteries are proving exceedingly expensive to produce and may limit the usefulness of this battery system for further commercial applications. Electro Energy, Inc. (EEI) has developed a Bipolar configuration of the nickel-metal hydride battery chemistry that offers improved performance and lower cost than conventional designs for Terrestrial Applications.
Klein, Martin, Eskra, Mike
Validation of Modified Wine-Rack Thermal Design for Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries in Landsat-7 Spacecraft Thermal Vacuum Test and in Flight1999-01-26268/2/1999
A heritage wine-rack thermal/mechanical design for the nickel-hydrogen batteries was the baseline at the Land-sat-7 Preliminary Design Review. An integrated thermal and power analysis of the batteries performed by the author in 1994 revealed that the maximum cell-to-cell gradient was 6.6°C. The author proposed modifying the heritage wine-rack design by enhancing heat conduction from cells to cells, and from cells to battery frame. At the 1995 Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC), the author presented a paper on methods of modifying the wine-rack design [1]. It showed that the modified wine-rack option, which uses a metallic filler, could reduce the maximum cell-to-cell temperature gradient to 1.3°C, and could also reduce the maximum cell temperature by as much as 8°C. That design concept was adopted by the Landsat-7 Project Office, and a design change was made at the Critical Design Review. Results of the spacecraft and instrument integrated thermal balance (T/B) and thermal vacuum (T/V) test, and temperature data in flight show that the temperatures of the battery cells are very uniform. The maximum cell-to-cell gradient is 1.4°C. They validate the modified wine-rack thermal design.
Choi, Michael K.
90 Ah Dependent Pressure Vessel (DPV) Nickel Hydrogen Battery Qualification Test Results1999-01-25908/2/1999
In 1995, the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) began a program to investigate whether a 90 Ah dependent pressure vessel (DPV) NiH2 battery pack could be a lower volume replacement for a 90 Ah NiH2 IPV spacecraft battery. Nickel Hydrogen (NiH2) dependent pressure vessel (DPV) battery cells are presumed to offer all the features of the NiH2 IPV battery cell with considerably less volume. To achieve this reduction in volume, the DPV cell utilizes a canteen shaped pressure vessel with reduced thickness wall, flat sides and curved ends. The cells can be packaged similar to prismatic nickel cadmium battery cells. Moreover, like NiCd cells, a fully charged DPV cell must rely upon an adjacent battery cell or structure for support and to maintain pressure vessel integrity. Seventeen 90 Ah NiH2 DPV cells were delivered to NR in 1998 for qualification tests. An eleven-cell half battery pack was manufactured and tested to validate the advantages of the DPV design. This paper will discuss the results of the cell level tests, qualification test requirements, the 11-cell battery pack design and qualification test results.
Garner, J. Christopher, Braun, William R.
Bipolar Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries for Aerospace Applications1999-01-24888/2/1999
Electro Energy, Inc. (EEI) is developing high power, long life, bipolar nickel-metal hydride batteries for aerospace applications. Bipolar nickel-metal hydride designs allow for high energy and high power designs with a 25 percent reduction in both weight and volume as compared to prismatic and/or cylindrical Ni-MH designs. Utilizing a sealed wafer cell design Electro Energy has demonstrated a 1.2 kW/kg power capability. Prototype designs have achieved 70 Wh/kg. Designs studies show 80 Wh/kg are achievable with EEI’s state-of-the-art technology. The sealed wafer-cell is the building block for EEI’s high power and high voltage bipolar batteries making the assembly easy and significantly lower in cost. Satellite and aircraft batteries are being developed which provide high power and long life. Sealed cells now show excellent rate capability and life. Cells tested in a low earth orbit (LEO) cycle have reached 9,000 cycles and continue on test. High power, bipolar battery designs are ideal in applications where using conventional aerospace battery technology would require excessive capacity; weight and volume, thereby reducing usable payload on the vehicle.
Cole, John H., Eskra, Michael, Klein, Martin
Performance Status of Super NiCd™ Batteries1999-01-13854/6/1999
Since the late 1980s Super NiCd™ Batteries have been used by Hughes Space and Communications, Co. (HSC), NASA, TRW, Lockheed Martin Space and Missiles Group, and Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. In early flight programs with the technology, some capacity losses on long-term storage were experienced, but recently batteries with storage up to five years prior to launch are yielding within 2-3% of prestrorage capacity and are demonstrating managable performance in orbit.
Pickett, David F., Hayden, Jeff W., Lucero, Dave
Pump and Flow Control Subassembly of Thermal Control Subsystem for Photovoltaic Power Module9321507/1/1993
The pump and flow control subassembly (PFCS) is an orbital replacement unit (ORU) on the Space Station Freedom photovoltaic power module (PVM). The PFCS pumps liquid ammonia at a constant rate of approximately 1170 kg/hr while providing temperature control by flow regulation between the radiator and the bypass loop. Also, housed within the ORU is an accumulator to compensate for fluid volumetric changes as well as the electronics and firmware for monitoring and control of the photovoltaic thermal control system (PVTCS). Major electronic functions include signal conditioning, data interfacing and motor control. This paper will provide a description of each major component within the PFCS along with performance test data. In addition, this paper will discuss the flow control algorithm and describe how the nickel hydrogen batteries and associated power electronics will be thermally controlled through regulation of coolant flow to the radiator.
Motil, Brian J., Santen, Mark A.
Design and Performance of Space Station Photovoltaic Radiators9321517/1/1993
The design and performance of the Space Station Freedom Photovoltaic (PV) Power Module Thermal Control System radiators is presented. The PV Radiator is of a single phase pumped loop design using liquid ammonia as the coolant. Key design features are described, including the base structure, deployment mechanism, radiator panels, and two independent coolant loops. The basis for a specific mass of 7.8 kg/m2 is discussed, and methods of lowering this number for future systems are briefly described. Key performance parameters are also addressed. A summary of test results and analysis is presented to illustrate the survivability of the radiator in the micrometeoroid and orbital debris environment. A design criterion of 95% probability of no penetration of both fluid loops over a 10 year period is shown to be met. Methods of increasing the radiator survivability even further are presented. Thermal performance is also discussed, including a comparison of modeling predictions with existing test results. Degradation in thermal performance due to exposure to atomic oxygen and ultraviolet radiation in the low Earth orbit environment is presented. The structural criteria to which the radiator is designed are also briefly addressed. Finally, potential design improvements are discussed.
White, K. Alan, Fleming, Mike L., Lee, Avis Y.
Evaluation of Nickel Hydrogen Battery Cells for Space-Based Radar9290958/3/1992
A study was conducted in 1991 on nickel-hydrogen (NiH2) battery cells to assess their use for space-based radar satellites. Current NiH2 and related programs were investigated. Cell performance data were assessed, focusing on pulsed-load operation, cell design factors, and life expectancy. A need for pulsed-load testing of candidate cells was identified, especially to characterize their effective series resistance, dynamic impedance, and possible degradations. A NiH2 Cell Test Program was planned and will start in mid-1992.
Metcalfe, John R., Maskell, Craig A.
Design of a Nickel-Hydrogen Battery Simulator for the NASA EOS Testbed9294908/3/1992
The hardware and software design of a Nickel-Hydrogen (Ni-H2) Battery Simulator (BS) with application to the NASA Earth Observation System (EOS) satellite is presented. The battery simulator is developed as a part of a complete testbed for the EOS satellite power system. The battery simulator involves both hardware and software components. The hardware component includes the capability of sourcing and sinking current at a constant programmable voltage. The software component includes the capability of monitoring the battery's Ampere-hours (Ah) and programming the battery voltage according to an empirical model of the nickel-hydrogen battery stored in a computer.
Gur, Zvi, Mang, Xuesi, Patil, Ashok R., Sable, Dan M., Cho, Bo H., Lee, Fred C.
Air Force Nickel Hydrogen Cell Low Earth Orbit Life Test-Update9290928/3/1992
There are currently 132 nickel hydrogen (NiH2) cells on test in a low earth orbit (LEO) regime at the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Crane Division. There are also 10 NiH2 cells in a special pulse test at the Aerospace Corporation. The testing, which is sponsored by the Air Force Phillips Laboratory, began in 1987. The majority of the cells have over four years of real time LEO cycles. The purpose of this paper is to provide a description of the NiH2 low earth orbit life test plan and to present the current status of cells in the test.
Hill, Carole A., Matsumoto, James M., Poston, Talmadge M., Prater, Alonzo, Brown, Harry, Hall, Steve
Performance Characterization of 40 Ah Common Pressure Vessel Nickel-Hydrogen Cell9293218/3/1992
The electrical and thermal performance of a 40 Ah dual stack Nickel-Hydrogen (NiH2) cell has been characterized at 0°C and 10°C. The testing included standard capacity tests and electrical cycling using 100 minute cycling regimens, utilizing one of three modes: 1) Cycling containing 77A pulse loads applied for 6 msec followed by a 24A charge for 6 msec; 2) Constant current, constant depth-of-discharge (DOD) cycles; and 3) Constant DOD cycles with step changes in cell current at three points in the discharge. The testing was performed with the cell in a heat conduction calorimeter. The results of the test included amount of instantaneous heat generation during a typical LEO cycle, pressure vs. cutoff voltage data to establish a temperature-compensated voltage cutoff curve, and voltage characteristics suitable to generate a voltage prediction model. The inductive response to pulse loads is of interest and is discussed in the paper.
Hafen, Douglas
Electrical Power System Integrated Thermal/Electrical System Simulation9293158/3/1992
This paper adds thermal properties to previously developed [1] [2] [3] electrical Saber templates and incorporates these templates into a functional Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) simulation. These combined electrical and thermal templates enable the complete and realistic simulation of a vehicle EPS on-orbit. Applications Include on-orbit energy balance determinations for system load changes, initial array and battery EPS sizing for new EPS development, and array and battery technology trade studies. This effort proves the versatility of the Saber simulation program in handling varied and complex simulations accurately and in a reasonable amount of computer time.
Freeman, W. Eric
An Electrical Power System for a Mobile Communications Spacecraft9291238/3/1992
A regulated high voltage solar array/battery system using large area silicon solar cells and a group of Ni-H energy storage cells meets the requirements of a multikilowatt geosynchronous orbit application. The electrical power bus operates at approximately 50 Vdc, minimizing unbalanced magnetic torques and distribution harness weight. The program design goal of 12 years of operation on station, including up to 2 years of orbital storage, represents a significant extension of total mission life.
Ashley, Christopher R., Hayden, Joseph H., Ibrahim, Timour H.
Hubble Space Telescope Nickel-Hydrogen Battery and Cell Testing - An Update9290898/3/1992
Nickel-hydrogen (Ni-H2) technology has only recently been utilized in low earth orbit (LEO) applications. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) program, over the past five years, played a key role in developing this application. The HST not only became the first reported, nonexperimental program to fly Ni-H2 batteries in a LEO application, but funded numerous, ongoing tests that served to validate this usage. The Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) has been testing HST Ni-H2 batteries and cells for over three years. The major tests include a 6-battery system (SBS) test and a single 22-cell battery (FSB) test. The SBS test has been operating for 34 months and completed approximately 15,200 cycles. The performance of the cells and batteries in this test is nominal. Currently, the batteries are operating at an average end-of-charge (EOC) pressure that indicates an average capacity of approximately 79 ampere-hours (Ah). The watt-hour (Wh) efficiency is averaging about 82 percent, and the end-of-discharge (EOD) voltage is remaining stable at 1.31 volts (V)/cell. The batteries have been operating for nearly 15 months since the last capacity check was run and plans are to continue cycling without a capacity check for at least another 3 months. The FSB test has been operating for nearly 33 months and completed approximately 14,700 cycles. The performance of the cells in this battery test is also nominal. Currently, the battery is operating at an average EOC pressure that indicates a capacity of approximately 79 Ah. The Wh efficiency is averaging about 82 percent, and the EOD voltage is remaining stable at 1.32 V/cell. This battery has also been operating for nearly 15 months since the last capacity check was run and plans are to continue cycling just as the SBS test for at least another 3 months before a capacity check is considered. Two special tests were conducted on the SBS and FSB over the past year. The first test required both the SBS and the FSB to be placed in a step-taper charge mode for approximately 4 months to evaluate the effects of operating the batteries in this less-efficient charge mode for an extended period of time. This test was developed in response to a possible need to free additional memory in the HST on-board computer. The electrical power system (EPS) could contribute to this end by eliminating its software-control (step-to-trickle) charge mode capability which requires significant computer memory. The results of the test showed little effect on the overall performance of the system when changed to a step-taper charge mode as long as the V/T level (temperature-compensated charge voltage cutoff curves) was lowered in conjunction with the charge mode change. The second test was an attempt to duplicate an anomaly observed on the HST EPS in which telemetry indicated 10 minutes into trickle charge a load current increase of approximately 20 amperes (A) resulting from an apparent temporary short to structure somewhere between the +CC solar panel assemblies (SPA) and the battery 1 positive lead. The current was high enough to lower the battery voltages to a point that the charge control relays closed, thus placing the batteries in a momentary high-rate charge mode. The test showed a current of approximately 70 A for less than 250 milliseconds would create such a voltage drop on the batteries. Because the telemetry rate is only two samples per second, a short pulse of this magnitude is possible and is the likely scenario for what occurred on the HST.
Brewer, Jeffrey C., Whitt, Thomas H.
Nickel-Metal Hydride and Silver-Metal Hydride Batteries for Aerospace Applications9294608/3/1992
Nickel and silver-metal hydride batteries are being developed for aerospace applications by Eagle-Picher. Metal hydride batteries offer a number of advantages over other aerospace battery systems. Nickel-metal hydride batteries have twice the gravimetric energy density of nickel-cadmium and twice the volumetric energy density of nickel-hydrogen. Silver-metal hydride batteries have the potential of three times the energy density of nickel-metal hydride and exhibit superior charge retention characteristics. Aerospace metal hydride batteries are hermetically sealed, operate at low pressure and are prismatic in geometry. They exhibit excellent overcharge and overdischarge capability. Preliminary calorimetry data indicates superior thermal performance as compared to nickel-cadmium and nickel-hydrogen batteries. Some initial AC impedance spectroscopy work has been completed on both metal-hydrogen and metal-hydride battery systems. The objective of current programs at Eagle-Picher is to develop high energy density, long cycle life metal-hydride batteries for the aerospace market and to establish a testing database to support future applications.
Coates, Dwaine, Fox, Chris, Miller, Lee
Validation Test of Advanced Technology for IPV Nickel-Hydrogen Flight Cells - Update9294858/3/1992
Individual pressure vessel (IPV) nickel-hydrogen technology was advanced at NASA Lewis and under Lewis contracts with the intention of improving cycle life and performance. One advancement was to use 26 percent potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte to improve cycle life. Another advancement was to modify the state-of-the-art cell design to eliminate identified failure modes. The modified design is referred to as the advanced design. A breakthrough in the Low-Earth-Orbit (LEO) cycle life of IPV nickel-hydrogen cells has been previously reported. The cycle life of boiler plate cells containing 26 percent KOH electrolyte was about 40 000 LEO cycles compared to 3500 cycles for cells containing 31 percent KOH. The boiler plate test results are in the process of being validated using flight hardware and real time LEO test at the Naval Weapons Support Center (NWSC), Crane, Indiana under a NASA Lewis Contract. An advanced 125 Ah IPV nickel-hydrogen cell was designed. The primary function of the advanced cell, is to store and deliver energy for long-term, LEO spacecraft missions. The new features of this design are: (1) use of 26 rather than 31 percent KOH electrolyte, (2) use of a patented catalyzed wall wick, (3) use of serrated-edge separators to facilitate gaseous oxygen and hydrogen flow within the cell, while still maintaining physical contact with the wall wick for electrolyte management, and (4) use of a floating rather than a fixed stack (state-of-the-art) to accommodate nickel-electrode expansion due to charge/discharge cycling. The significant improvements resulting from these innovations are extended cycle life; enhanced thermal, electrolyte, and oxygen management; and accommodation of nickel-electrode expansion. The advanced cell design is in the process of being validated using real time LEO cycle life testing of NWSC, Crane, Indiana. An update of validation test results confirming this technology is presented.
Smithrick, John J., Hall, Stephen W.
Performance of INTELSAT V Ni-H2 Batteries in Orbit (1983-1991)9290908/3/1992
The INTELSAT V Spacecraft F-6 (launched in 1983) was the first geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO) satellite to use Ni-H2 batteries. Since then, seven more of these INTELSAT V satellites (F-7, F-8, F-10, F-11, F-12, F-13, and F-15) have been successfully launched with Ni-H2 batteries. The last one, F-15, was launched in the spring of 1989. Two 27-cell 30-Ah batteries are used on each INTELSAT V spacecraft. A description of these batteries is presented, including the cell design features and the mechanical, thermal, and electrical design features of the battery. The batteries in the first six spacecraft are discharged to 56 percent depth-of-discharge (DOD) during eclipse periods, and the batteries in the last two spacecraft to 67 percent DOD. Performance data are presented for these batteries from the time they were launched through the Fall eclipse season 1991. These data include (1) the battery minimum end-of-discharge (EOD) voltage observed during each eclipse season and the minimum individual cell voltage within each battery; (2) the reconditioning capacity measured prior to each eclipse season; and (3) the end-of-charge (EOC) and the end-of-discharge (EOD) pressure measured during each reconditioning cycle. Data are presented for the 14 batteries on F-6, F-8, F-10, F-11, F-12, F-13, and F-15 spacescraft. The reconditioning capacity for these 14 batteries in orbit has become stable with time, and the capacities are closely matched. The range in capacity for all 14 batteries was between 38.3 and 43.4 Ah for the Fall 1992 reconditioning. There has been no increase in the reconditioning EOD pressure after eight years of operation. The average EOD pressure for all 14 batteries in the Fall of 1990 was 32.3 psi, as compared with 31.7 psi average at the beginning of life. These data show that there is no oxidation (plaque corrosion) occuring within these cells. The EOD voltage is stable with time during eclipse operations. It is difficult to predict the lifetime of these INTELSAT V Ni-H2 batteries because they show very little voltage loss after 8 years in orbit. The expectation now is that these batteries will last beyond 15 years in orbit.
Dunlop, James D., Dunnett, Andrew, Cooper, Dennis
Spacecraft Power System Compatibility and Stability for the NASA EOS Satellite9290788/3/1992
This paper addresses the problem of system stability of the NASA EOS satellite power system. A potential stability problem exists without a clear specification of the payload input impedance characteristic. Design guidelines are established for the control of the power system and the individual subcomponents to help insure stability with an unknown complex load. A testbed of the EOS power system is employed to verify the analysis.
Sable, Dan M., Cho, Bo H., Lee, Fred C.
Calorimetric Study of Ni/H2 Thermal Phenomena9291068/3/1992
The heat dissipated during various rates of charge, overcharge, and discharge of a nickel-hydrogen (Ni/H2) cell was measured using a radiative-type calorimeter. A flight configuration-type Ni/H2 cell was prepared for this study by wrapping the 4-in.-wide cylindrical portion with heater tape and insulating the two dome ends with 10 layers of aluminized Mylar. The radiating surface was limited to the cylindrical portion of the cell. The calorimeter consisted of a liquid-nitrogen-cooled copper chamber arranged inside a vacuum jar. Since the experiments were not performed under isothermal conditions, the term was included in the equation used to calculate heat dissipation. Experimentally measured heat values were compared against those calculated using a thermoneutral potential of 1.51 V. Although there was general agreement between the calculated and measured values, a significant difference existed in the instantaneous heat values during charging and the initial stages of cell discharge. The discrepancy is attributed to inaccurate values for the thermoneutral potential and charge efficiency.
Vaidyanathan, H., Kelly, W. H., Earl, M. W.
Common Pressure Vessel NiH2 Battery Experiment Electronics9290838/3/1992
The Naval Research Laboratory intends to launch a flight experiment designed to space qualify a Common Pressure Vessel (CPV) Nickel-Hydrogen (NiH2) battery on a host spacecraft. The CPV NiH2 battery has the potential to significantly increase the useable energy density over currently available rechargeable batteries. This paper will describe the CPV NiH2 Battery Experiment Electronics hardware, capabilities and interfaces with the host spacecraft's electrical power system.
Skalitzky, Robert G.
Nickel Hydrogen Battery Cell Storage Matrix Test9292558/3/1992
In connection with several on-going cell manufacturing programs the storage characteristics of nickel hydrogen battery cells are being evaluated. All of the cells in the study are of 65 ampere-hour capacity and contain the same number and types of electrodes. They differ in type of separator, operating pressure, type of precharge, electrolyte concentration and type of wall coating. Data are presented for some of the cells following storage for up to 15 months at warm and cold temperatures. A comparison of the electrical operating characteristics of cells before and after storage is made.
Wheeler, James R., Dodson, Gary W.
Comparison of Nickel-Hydrogen and Nickel-Cadmium Reliability for Low-Earth-Orbit Batteries9292578/3/1992
Nickel-Hydrogen (NiH2) realtime and accelerated low-earth-orbit (LEO) cycle test data at 10°C have been used to generate a model of reliability as a function of depth-of-discharge (DOD). The reliability model is specific to cells incorporating positive electrodes manufactured by the wet slurry process. A cycle life prediction has also been derived from the reliability equation and has been compared to two other predictions: one for NiH2 cells of generic design and one for Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) hardware. The comparison clearly shows the superiority of NiH2 in LEO. At each DOD for which test data existed in the 5°C to 10°C range, the realtime and accelerated LEO life cycle test data were algebraically fit to a Weibull distribution which passes through the current cycle count of the ongoing tests, none of which have experienced a failure. The analysis was performed for the 15%, 30% and 40% DOD test conditions for “wet slurry” NiH2. A best-fit to a Weibull distribution was performed for the comparison predictions, at DOD's of 40%, 60% and 80% for “generic” NiH2, and at DOD's from 15% to 50% for NiCd. The end result of the cell reliability analysis is a plot of cell probability of success (PS) versus cycle time. The PS graph may be converted to a graph of expected cycle life for the case of a battery, given number of cells per battery and a value for required battery reliability. Low earth orbit life test data at 10°C shows that NiH2 has a superior cycle life to the established NiCd system. In addition, the life projections for “wet slurry” NiH2 are above those of “generic” NiH2. In conjunction with the energy density advantage, NiH2 is clearly the system of choice for both GEO and LEO missions requiring high reliability and longer life.
Hafen, Douglas
Method for Rejuvenating Ni-H2 Battery Cells9290918/3/1992
High cell impedance, which is associated with an electrolyte water loss mechanism, has developed in INTELSAT V Ni-H2 battery cells, resulting in voltage degradation. This phenomenon was first observed in the discharge behavior of specific cells of the INTELSAT V life test battery, which is INTELSAT supported and under test at COMSAT Laboratories. The mechanism responsible for the voltage degradation was identified by removing both anomalous and normal cells from the battery and fitting valve assemblies to their fill tubes. The cells were then returned to life testing. The valves were opened at intervals to release any accumulated fluid. Only the anomalous cells produced an accumulation of fluid, and, on analysis, the fluid proved to be essentially water. Subsequently, in-orbit performance mimicked that of the life-test, and a technique based on enhanced vapor diffusion of the displaced water returning into the stack electrolyte was developed. This technique has been implemented for in-orbit batteries through ground command procedures and is now routinely performed to rejuvenate those batteries with cells exhibiting this phenomenon. A description of the experimentation leading to the establishment of the rejuvenating technique and the results of its implementation for in-orbit batteries is presented.
Earl, Martin, Burke, Todd
A Mathematical Model for Nickel Hydrogen Cell Behavior on Space Station Freedom9292598/3/1992
Mathematical modeling of the Ni-H2 cell based on the fundamental electrochemical processes is necessary for accurately simulating the battery behavior on Space Station Freedom. Accurate predictions are incorporated as part of the development of the Space Station Electric Power System simulation. This simulation will be used to develop and test control algorithms which will maximize the available power in the most efficient way. This is a deviation from the approach used on smaller satellite power systems which are designed with substantial margin. Hence, the use of an empirical battery model is not feasible due to its low fidelity. This paper covers the electrochemical theory related to the Ni-H2 cells, and the analysis of experimental data used to develop relations between the cell state of charge and certain cell properties. Theoretical results are compared against well-documented experimental data. Excellent correlation is shown, with a worst-case voltage deviation of about 3% from the experimental data. The worst-case pressure deviation was less than 8%.
Tajirian, Edmond K.
Study of Nickel Hydrogen Battery Discharge Performance After Charge and Stand at Warm Temperature9292548/3/1992
Spacecraft batteries are normally installed in the discharged condition. It may be necessary that they be charged and trickle-charged prior to launch in an environment different from that in which they are intended to operate; i.e., an environment in which the heat generated during charge and trickle charge is radiated to space. The purpose of the testing described herein was to determine the battery capacity achieved after treatment at prelaunch conditions as a function of charge rate, charge temperature, trickle charge temperature, and time. In this testing the discharge in every case was performed under simulated space thermal conditions. Charging was performed with a variety of battery starting temperatures, and heat dissipation was limited to that expected to be encountered under conditions of cooling with an air manifold. At the worst conditions of test, that is with 24°C (75°F) cooling air at the battery baseplate, 80 percent of the rated capacity was obtained.
Donley, S. W., Verrier, D. C.
Post Storage Conditioning of Nickel-Hydrogen Battery Cells9292568/3/1992
Extended room temperature storage of nickel-hydrogen battery cells has resulted in a capacity loss when the cells are initially cycled following the storage period. Because it may be necessary to “store” nickel-hydrogen batteries for long periods at room temperature (i.e., shipment, installation, etc.), tests were performed to establish the effects on capacity recovery of several post-storage conditioning methods. The tests included two groups of cells; a 60-day storage group and 120-day storage group. Each group comprised three 2-cell packs. The capacity of each cell was measured under the same controlled conditions both prior to storage and after post-storage conditioning. Each 2-cell pack in a group was conditioned differently over a 13-day period following storage. The results attained with the 60-day storage group were essentially confirmed with the 120-day storage group. In addition, Group 1 was subjected to a second 60-day storage period after which the effects of variations of the conditioning methods were evaluated. The paper describes in detail the cell design, the test procedures, and the test results.
Verrier, D. C., Donley, S. W.
Nickel Hydrogen Batteries for Terrestrial Applications9290568/3/1992
Nickel-Hydrogen (Ni-H2) batteries have an extensive database of successful operation in aerospace applications requiring long life, no maintenance, and extremely high reliability. In the common pressure vessel (CPV) design configuration, the life cycle cost of the system is actually lower than that of lead acid and other competing battery technologies. This cost advantage can be directly attributed to the long life, exceeding 10,000 deep discharge cycles, and no maintenance capabilities of the CPV Nickel-Hydrogen battery. As a result the CPV has significant market potential in terrestrial applications such as load leveling, remote energy storage, and aircraft starting.
Zagrodnik, Jeffrey P., Jones, Kenneth R.
Nickel Hydrogen Battery Expert System9291048/3/1992
At present, Nickel Hydrogen batteries are tested at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in support of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) program. In previous years, Nickel Cadmium batteries were tested at MSFC in support of HST. The Nickel Cadmium Battery Expert System-2 (NICBES-2) was employed on the HST six battery test bed to evaluate the performance of the HST Electrical Power System (EPS). With the beginning of testing of the nickel hydrogen six battery test bed, NICBES-2 had to be converted to NICkel Hydrogen Battery Expert System (NICHES). This paper describes the conversion of the NICBES-2 to the NICHES as well as future plans for NICHES.
Johnson, Yvette B., McCall, Kurt E.
75 AH and 10 Boilerplate Nickel-Hydrogen Battery Designs and Test Results9293238/3/1992
The 75 Ah actively cooled bipolar battery continues to undergo LEO life testing at 40% DOD and to date has completed 13,000 cycles. The EOC and EOD voltages indicate that there is slight degradation in the overall battery performance. The primary influence in this decline is considered to be one cell's poor performance. The potential for extended cycle life capability of bipolar batteries has been demonstrated. Ten 4-cell passively cooled bipolar batteries are on test at Space Systems/Loral (SS/L). Characterization testing has been completed. The results indicate that high capacity utilizations can be maintained at various discharge rates. Performance differences were noted and seem to be related to battery design variations. Further testing is planned.
Chang, R., Cruz, E.
Nickel-Hydrogen Multicell Common Pressure Vessel Battery Development Update9293208/3/1992
The multicell common pressure vessel (CPV) nickel-hydrogen (Ni-H2) battery manufactured by Johnson Controls Battery Group, Inc. has completed full flight qualification, including random vibration at 19.5 g for two minutes in each axis, electrical characterization in a thermal vacuum chamber, and mass-spectroscopy vessel leak detection. A first launch is scheduled in 1992. Several new design variations, ranging from 9 Ah to 125 Ah and 12 to 32 volts, in 12.7 cm (5″) and 25.4 cm (10″) diameter vessels have been developed and prototypes fabricated for a variety of customers. Designs for smaller capacity, smaller diameter (6.4-8.9 cm) and higher voltage (up to 100 volts) are in progress. The CPV battery offers cost and weight savings of up to 30% as compared to traditional nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) and individual pressure vessel (IPV) Ni-H2 batteries. The fully qualified design provided a 50% weight savings over its Ni-Cd predecessor for the same application. The reduced volume of the CPV also provides a significant advantage over IPV technology. Resistance data shows a further advantage as compared to IPV Ni-H2 and even Ni-Cd.
Zagrodnik, Jeffrey P., Jones, Kenneth R.
Thermal Dissipation of a Nickel-Hydrogen Battery Cell9213667/1/1992
The thermal dissipation of a 48-Ah nickel-hydrogen (Ni/H2) battery cell has been derived by testing it in a controlled radiative environment. Temperature profiles and corresponding cell thermal dissipations are presented for different battery discharge/charge cycles. A comparison between test results and theoretical predictions for battery dissipation is presented. The thermal capacitance of a Ni/H2 cell is computed from both test data and tabulation of individual cell component weight and specific heat.
Kelly, W. H., Vaidyanathan, H.
A Feed-Back Thermal Regulation System for the Columbus Free Flyer Battery Section9114097/1/1991
The BSTCA (Battery Section Thermal Control Assembly) is a module of the Columbus MTFF (Man Tended Free Flyer). Electrical power required during eclipse periods, is made available from six nickel hydrogen batteries. A sophisticated multi-radiator configuration, with a hybrid heat pipe network, has evolved. Autonomous control of the assembly heat rejection capability has been achieved by a integrated network of LTHP's (Liquid Trap Heat Pipes) and CCHP's (Constant Conductance Heat Pipes) under the control of a conventional HCU (Heater Control Unit). The process of design selection and verification is discussed, for the BSTCA, with a detailed LTHP component presentation.
Moeller, Peter, Held, J., Kreeb, H., Lanteri, Alain, Potts, C.W.B.
Multiple Cell CPV Nickel Hydrogen Battery9111604/1/1991
Johnson Controls, Inc. has developed a multiple cell CPV Nickel Hydrogen battery that offers significant weight, volume and cost advantages for aerospace applications. The baseline design was successfully demonstrated through the testing of a 26-cell prototype, which completed over 7,000 44% depth-of-discharge LEO cycles at COMSAT Laboratories. Prototype designs using both nominal 5″ and 10″ diameter vessels are currently being developed for a variety of space and aircraft applications. Nickel Hydrogen batteries are well established as an energy storage subsystem for commercial communication satellites. The standard design has been the Individual Pressure Vessel (IPV), which provides an independent vessel for each cell of the battery. The comparative advantages of a Common Pressure Vessel (CPV) design configuration, in which many series connected cells are contained in a single vessel, are widely recognized. These include higher specific energy, higher system energy density, simplified interfacing, and reduced cost as compared to the IPV. However, historical concerns related to electrolyte and thermal management had previously prevented the introduction of a reliable CPV design.
Zagrodnik, Jeffrey P., Jones, Kenneth R.
The Design and Fabrication of “Texas Native Sun”, The University of Texas Entry in G.M. Sunrayce U.S.A., a Solar Powered Vehicle Race Across the United States9015158/1/1990
A team of student engineers at the University of Texas at Austin has designed and built “Texas Native Sun”, a solar powered vehicle for competition in GM Sunrayce U.S.A. The single-seat vehicle uses conventional photovoltaic solar cells to produce electricity for vehicle propulsion. The vehicle features graphite/epoxy composite monocoque construction, a high power-density permanent magnet electric motor, a mechanical/hydraulic continuously variable transmission, nickel-hydrogen satellite batteries, and a composite leaf spring suspension. The race strategies and tactics of energy management are optimized through use of a computer code which simulates the vehicle under race conditions. Much of the technology employed in the vehicle may one day become an ordinary part of future transportation systems which seek greater energy efficiency and less damage to the environment.
Cranor, Matt, Bossert, Jean, Cloud, Jeff, Cranor, Nancy, Guilloteau, Frank, Koughan, Jim, Lusky, Jon, Nudd, Gregg, Wallace, Bruce, Matthews, Ronald D., Nichols, Steve, Vliet, Gary
Nickel Alkaline Batteries for Space Electrical Power Systems9010554/1/1990
Nickel alkaline batteries used in spacecraft electrical power subsystems are either nickel-cadium or nickel-hydrogen. The nickel-cadmium battery has been used since the beginning of the space program, while the nickel-hydrogen battery is a relative newcomer. Both couples are still used extensively, and recent advances in each have been documented. There are advantages and disadvantages in the use of either chemistry, but the nickel-hydrogen battery appears to be more attractive for longer life and higher specific energy for payloads greater than one kilowatt.
Pickett, David F.
Development of Advanced Battery Systems for vehicle Applications8907832/1/1989
The Advanced Battery Business Unit (ABBU) of Johnson Controls, Inc. Is developing several promising advanced battery technologies including flow-through lead-acid, zinc/bromine, and nickel hydrogen. The flow-through lead-acid technology, which is being developed under Department of Energy (DOE) sponsorship, is progressing towards the fabrication of a 39 kWh battery system. Recent efforts have focused on achieving the aggressive specific energy goal of 56 Wh/kg in 12 volt module form. Recent DOE sponsored work in the zinc/bromine program has focused on the development of a proof-of-concept 50 kWh electric vehicle system for a light van application. Efforts in the nickel hydrogen program have focused on reducing system cost in order to make the “life-time” premium market and EV market possible targets. The status and future direction of each of these programs are summarized.
Zagrodnik, J. P., Eskra, M. D., Andrew, M. G., Gentry, W. O.
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