This SAE Recommended Practice specifies the design and/or evaluation with the specific equipment, conditions, and methods for distributorless battery ignition systems intended for use in various internal combustion engines including automotive, marine, motorcycle, and utility engine applications. The test procedures listed in this document are limited to measurements performed on a test bench only and do not include measurements made directly on engines or vehicles. This standard is not intended to supply information for battery ignition systems used in aircraft applications of any type.

Ignition Standards Committee

Maintenance of Batteries and Battery Charging and Servicing Facilities

AIR1898A (Current)09/23/2020

This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) covers, and is restricted to, hands-on servicing/ maintenance of industrial lead acid batteries used solely for motive power and exclusively for ground support equipment (GSE). It does not address or pertain to automotive-type SLI (starting-lighting-ignition) batteries or any other types of batteries (such as nickel-cadmium, zinc, or lithium batteries) which may be on-board airport GSE for either motive power or auxiliary uses. Similarly, the battery servicing and charging facilities described herein are those intended exclusively for industrial lead acid batteries.

AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee

Battery Industrial, Lead-Acid Type, for Use in Electric Powered Ground Support Equipment

ARP1817A (Current)09/23/2020

This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) describes an industrial battery, lead-acid type, for use in electric powered ground support equipment.

AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee

J1798/1_202008 (Current)08/03/2020

Battery Standards Testing Committee

Portable Emergency Lighting Systems for Flight Crew Members

ARP1798B (Current)

07/14/2020

The purpose of this SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) is to recommend general design and performance characteristics for hand-held portable, emergency lighting systems (note: the portable portion of this system that contains the lamp and reflector will be identified throughout the remainder of this document simply as a “flashlight”) intended for use by crew members of commercial aircraft during any emergency situation, within or outside of the aircraft cabin, where emergency lighting is required.

A-20C Interior Lighting

Portable Emergency Lighting Systems for Flight Crew Members

ARP1798B-TEST-REC (Historical)07/14/2020

A-20C Interior Lighting

EDITORIAL: The world's most capable hybrid vehicle

20AUTP08_0407/01/2020

What does the future hold for hybrid-electric vehicle technology? In recent years battery EVs have captured the mobility industry's focus, Hybrids, of course, continue to offer efficiency and practicality for millions of customers - ask the owner of any Prius taxicab. The technology is robust and proven, even making its way recently into Jeeps and soon, Ford's F-150 (see p. 11). But when the BEVs finally take over the world's roads and even its airspace, as some predict, what then for hybrids? The answer may reside in what is reputed to be the world's most capable HEV. Can you guess what it is?

Brooke, Lindsay

Open approach to propulsion

20TOFHP06_0206/01/2020

Deutz CEO sees combination of sustainable-fuel combustion engines and electric drive systems powering the off-highway market. The economic climate has fast soured in recent months due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but Deutz has reason to be optimistic about the coming months and years. Prior to halting large parts of its production in Europe in April, the German drive-systems manufacturer showcased at ConExpo/Con-Agg 2020 a range of advanced technologies that it believes are necessary for future competitiveness. “It is vital that we make the necessary investment in order to secure the long-term success of the company, and that includes steadfastly pursuing the growth projects that we have already initiated,” said Dr. Frank Hiller, CEO and chairman of the Deutz AG board of management, in a recent statement about the negative impact of the coronavirus crisis on its engine business.

Gehm, Ryan

Development of A Computational Algorithm for Estimation of Lead Acid Battery Life

2020-01-139104/14/2020

The performance and durability of the lead acid battery is highly dependent on the internal battery temperature. The changes in internal battery temperatures are caused by several factors including internal heat generation and external heat transfer from the vehicle under-hood. Internal heat generation depends on the battery charging strategy and electric loading. External heat transfer effects are caused by customer duty cycle, and heat transfer, vehicle under-hood components and under-hood ambient air. During soak conditions, the ambient temperature can have significant effect on battery temperature after a long drive for example. Therefore, the temperature rise in a lead-acid battery must be controlled to improve its performance and durability. In this paper a thermal model for Lead-Acid battery is developed which integrates both internal and external factors along with customer duty cycle to predict battery temperature at various driving conditions. The model is fully integrated

El-Sharkawy, Alaa, Mohamed, Karim, Park, Ye Chan, Sami, Amr

A Development of Battery Aging Prediction Model Based on Actual Vechile Driving Pattern

2020-01-105904/14/2020

The battery of the real vehicle accelerates the battery aging due to the dark current of the black box, the high ambient temperature, the shortage of the battery charge rate and the customer complaints such as intermittent occurrence of ISG intermittently entering the vehicle and bad start. In addition, the existing battery durability verification requires a long period of more than 4 months through the deep discharge and it has not secured the advance verification technology through battery durability verification and battery aging simulation that reflect the various actual vehicle driving conditions of the customer. In order to improve this, it is aimed to develop a battery aging prediction model that reflects various operating conditions of actual vehicle driving pattern based customer. The NREL battery lifetime model has been adapted for AGM lead-acid batteries using experimental test data. Battery stress statistics are created with a battery thermal/electric simulation and then

LIM, YOUNGCHUL, Edel, Zachary

Thermal Analysis of Parallel Connected Li-Ion Batteries for Hybrid Aircraft

2020-01-089104/14/2020

Due to rising emissions, electric aircraft may indeed become inevitable. With the increase in production of hybrid aircraft, due to such needs for reduced energy sources and increased storage systems, the importance of batteries will also increase in the near future. When selecting batteries, consideration must be given to their energy density, non-toxicity, weight and optimum operating temperature. The density of lithium in the liquid state is only half that of water and in the solid state it is the lightest metal. Furthermore, lithium has a tendency to give electrons and charge, thus making it an important choice for use in batteries and the focus of this study. In this study, a sum of 20 batteries in the form of 2 parallel, 10 series were investigated. The thermal performance of the batteries was studied under natural conditions. It was concluded that forced convection should be done instead of natural convection for C ratios 2 and 2.5, because natural convection proved inadequate.

Yetik, Ozge, Karakoç, Hikmet, Yilmaz, Nadir

History and Prospects for Electric Vehicles and Electric Bikes: Pathway to Sustainable Carbon Free Energy and Transportation

2020-01-097404/14/2020

The Electric Transportation Revolution (ETR) began with the General Motors USA EV1 project and Yamaha Japan Pedal Assist System (PAS) electric bike, both in 1993. Worldwide EB annual sales are 40 million with 300 million on the road, mostly in China. Mandates and government incentives influence the EV market, customer demand drives EB growth. The EPA CO2 endangerment finding is forcing the auto industry to invest in EVs to help limit Mankind Made Carbon Dioxide Climate Change, MMCDCC, which is based on theoretical computer models that calculate global temperature. Measured temperature data, revised by modelers, used to validate these models has been challenged and so reported. Historical climatology data shows that Natural Climate Change, NCC, is more likely the CC cause. Known periodic variations of the sun’s orbit changes solar radiance and causes NCC. More CO2 in the atmosphere produces more plant growth, more food, thus CO2 is a beneficial gas. We propose a long term pathway to

Jamerson, Frank E.

Main Features of Forming the Transmission of an Active Multi-Link Road Train

2020-01-042704/14/2020

The development of the economy and the associated growth in trade both within the country and international transport, the associated construction and development of transport routes using elements of intelligent transport systems constantly require increasing the efficiency of trunk transportation. In addition, the development of new economic regions with an undeveloped road network is impossible without high-capacity motor vehicles and cross-country ability. To achieve these goals, the creation of active road trains, including multi-link ones, based on non-traditional technical solutions, is required. The idea of using multi-link trains in the system of intercity and international transportation is not new. However, at the present stage of development of automotive technology requires rethinking and use of new achievements of science and technology. At present, the process of changing the design of land vehicles, qualitatively changing their structure and composition of the main

Belousov, Boris, Haritonchik, Sergey, Keller, Andrei, Bakhmutov, Sergey, Berdnikov, Alexey, Alyukov, Sergei, Alyukov, Alexander

Step by Step Conversion of ICE Motorcycle to a BEV Configuration

2020-01-143604/14/2020

With the mass movement toward electrification and renewable technologies, the scope of innovation of electrification has gone beyond the automotive industry into areas such as electric motorcycle applications. This paper provides a discussion of the methodology and complexities of converting an internal combustion motorcycle to an electric motorcycle. In developing this methodology, performance goals including, speed limits, range, weight, charge times, as well as riding styles will be examined and discussed. Based on the goals of this paper, parts capable of reaching the performance targets are selected accordingly. Documentation of the build process will be presented along with the constraints, pitfalls, and difficulties associated with the process of the project. The step-by-step process that is developed can be used as a guideline for future build and should be used as necessary. During the development and conversion process, the model of the electric motorcycle was developed in

Lawrence, Matthew D., Siavoshani, Saeed

Storage Batteries for Start-Stop Operations

J3012_202002 (Current)02/10/2020

Start-Stop Battery Committee

Replacement of a 50cc Two-stroke Engine with an Electric Powertrain

2019-32-062301/24/2020

As global regulations look to create a dramatic reduction in CO2 emission and other forms of pollution, companies with products that rely on engine technology must be ready to take on the electrification challenge. Applications that remain using two-stroke engine technology continue to exist due to their very high power density requirements. However, their history of higher pollution compared to four-stroke engines makes them a target to be regulated out of existence. Such high power two-stroke applications include high performance off-road motorcycles. In this type of product, electrification can solve not only pollution challenges but market challenges, such as ridership and public perception. By addressing the core problems presented by the two-stroke engine and turning challenges into opportunity, a strong attraction is created to convert a two-stroke engine motorcycle to an electric vehicle. With Automotive electric vehicle technology paving the way, the basis for cost effective

Beeker, Jesse

Balancing Strategy for a Battery Applied in HEV Based on Bi-directional Flyback Converter and Outlier Detection

2019-36-024201/13/2020

Dissipative cell balancing generates heat during its operation. Current techniques do not guarantee optimal balance of battery pack energy, requiring a high-cost Battery Management System (BMS) solution and wasting energy in the form of heat. Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicles uses the combustion engine to recharge the battery. Therefore, this feature requires a BMS balancing system capable of optimizing battery capacity and still be energy efficient. In this way, a non-dissipative balancing system would be interesting, especially if an algorithm works with the former non-dissipative balancing method, which efficiently determines which cells are unbalanced. In this paper, a methodology is proposed to perform non-dissipative balance of lithium-ion cells. This method considers which cells inside a certain range are considered balanced and cells outside this range are considered unbalanced. The range is given by the median of the cells terminal voltage summed with a threshold defined by

Marques, Felipe L. R., Aranha, Juliana C. M. S., Padela, Fernando F., Rosolem, Maria de Fátima N. C., Beck, Raul F.

Real World Energy Efficiency Calculation for e-Rickshaws - A Comparative Study (Lead Acid Vs Lithium Ion Battery Vehicles)

2019-28-248611/21/2019

E-Rickshaws are receiving considerable attention as a sustainable passenger transportation in Indian mobility space. As per the recent reports, more than 1.5 million e-rickshaws are currently operating in the country. These are quieter, cleaner and convenient mode for last mile connectivity and are typically used for short distance (<10 Km) commutation. For owners, these vehicles offer value in terms of affordability and operating cost. Challenge for manufacturers is to design a vehicle which balances the requirements of both passengers and owners. Energy efficiency (Energy consumption per Km) influences such critical decisions. There is always a difference between the catalog value and actual on-road Energy efficiency figures and therefore it's important to really understand owner requirements w.r.t. market where vehicle is going to be operated. In this study, we collected data for different types of E-rickshaws in real world scenarios in city operations and determined the energy

Jain, Nishit, Gupta, Smit

J1798_201911 (Current)11/13/2019

Battery Standards Testing Committee

Design Considerations and Analysis of Electric Microcar for Cities

2019-28-016110/11/2019

Increasing concerns about environmental issues, such as global warming and pollutant emissions have made increase in energy efficiency and emission reduction a primary concern for automobiles. In addition, the compounding effects of adding personal vehicles, increasing density of road traffic and intensifying parking difficulties are indirectly promoting proliferation of small-size vehicles in large cities. Hence, there is a need to develop a microcar with zero emission. Thus, electric microcar is probably the simplest, green and energy efficient vehicle that relatively affordable and easily maneuverable in cities. However, a careful analysis is required in order to properly evaluate the propulsion system component sizing, vehicle dimension, performance and weight. This paper mainly focuses on design options and modeling of electric microcar using hub motors followed by analysis. A two seater electric microcar analytical model using MATLAB has been carried out for sizing of powertrain

Shaik, Amjad, Tappa, Raju, Kannan, Prashanth, Bhaskar, Pavan Bharadwaja, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao

The Methane Fuel Based Turbocharged Direct Injection Engine in a Hybrid Powertrain - An Efficient Synergy

2019-24-020109/09/2019

There is no doubt that the modern internal combustion engine (ICE) is approaching its theoretical limits in terms of efficiency. Owed to the fact that the conversion of fuel-bound chemical energy into effectively usable power by combustion is largely defined by the fuel properties, the combustion process and the implicit phenomenon of abnormal combustion is a governing factor that limits further efficiency increases. However, the use of a knock-resistant fuel such as methane is leading to a significant raise in the average combustion pressure and total engine efficiency. In turn this requires a base engine architecture that is specially designed to cater the increased thermal and mechanical requirements so that the positive fuel properties can be fully exploited. Furthermore, an improvement of the energy balance is achieved by utilizing the kinetic energy stored in the vehicle by means of electrical recovery. In consequence, a positive synergy can be observed when mating this type of

Stoffels, Harald, Weber, Carsten, Graf, Friedrich, Lauer, Stefan, Ehrhard, Jan, Moretti, Manuel, Neveling, Matthias

Q&A

19AUTP09_1509/01/2019

Few battery experts in the mobility industry can match the engineer/entrepreneur spirit of Subash Dhar. In a career spanning nearly 40 years, Dhar is co-inventor of over 45 patents and patent applications in the field of advanced batteries and fuel cell technologies. He led the team that developed and commercialized the nickel-metal hydride technology used in the Toyota Prius and has served in leadership positions at XALT Energy, Ener-1, EnerDel, and Ovonic. Dhar, a chemical engineer, recently founded a new company, American Battery Solutions, Inc., focused on module and pack engineering, assembly, and battery-systems integration. He's aiming for EV customers in the transportation, industrial-, and commercial-vehicle sectors who are seeking expertise at low and medium volumes. With $50 million in capital backing from NY-based KCK Group, Dhar purchased foundational assets from Bosch's North American battery-systems business, including a testing lab, a 172,000 square-foot plant in Ohio

Hybrid and EV First and Second Responder Recommended Practice

J2990_201907-TEST-REC (Historical)07/29/2019

xEVs involved in incidents present unique hazards associated with the high voltage system (including the battery system). These hazards can be grouped into three categories: chemical, electrical, and thermal. The potential consequences can vary depending on the size, configuration, and specific battery chemistry. Other incidents may arise from secondary events such as garage fires and floods. These types of incidents are also considered in the recommended practice (RP). This RP aims to describe the potential consequences associated with hazards from xEVs and suggest common procedures to help protect emergency responders, tow and/or recovery, storage, repair, and salvage personnel after an incident has occurred with an electrified vehicle. Industry design standards and tools were studied and where appropriate, suggested for responsible organizations to implement. Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries used for vehicle propulsion power are the assumed battery system of this RP. This chemistry is

Hybrid - EV Committee

Hybrid and EV First and Second Responder Recommended Practice

J2990_201907 (Current)

07/29/2019

Hybrid - EV Committee

High Frequency Impedance and Electromagnetic Interference Suppression of Lithium-Ion Power Battery Pack

2019-01-106004/02/2019

When electric vehicle speeds up or slows down, rapidly changing current and voltage (di/dt and du/dt) would occurs in its lithium-ion power battery. In this way, the impedance of power battery would changes with parasitic parameters because that the ion transport in electrolytes would influence diffusion effect and polarization effect of battery. Thus, the lithium-ion battery cannot be regarded as ideal component in high frequency, which could cause unpredictable problem in electromagnetic interference (EMI). However, most previous studies took lithium-ion power batteries as disturbed objects or transmission routes, which ignore the electromagnetic interference of battery itself. Based on it, this paper analyses the internal mechanism of EMI in lithium-ion power battery, and simulates the distribution of electromagnetic field as well as it corresponding interference suppression measures. Firstly, the test platform for parameter extraction of battery cell is built. The parasitic

Zhang, Ji, Lv, Yu

Technical Information Report on Automotive Battery Recycling

J2974_201902 (Current)02/11/2019

This document will focus on the language used to describe batteries at the end of battery or vehicle life as batteries are transitioned to the recycler, dismantler, or other third party. This document also provides a compilation of current recycling technologies and flow sheets, and their application to different battery chemistries at the end of battery life. At the time of document authorship, the technical information cited is most applicable to Li-ion battery type rechargeable energy storage systems (RESS), but the language used is not to be limited by chemistry of the battery systems and is generally applicable to other RESS.

Battery Standards Recycling Committee

Low Cost EV Platform for Three Wheeler Electrification Development

2019-26-012001/09/2019

This paper presents the FEV low cost EV platform intended to provide a modular and scalable platform for 2 and 3 wheelers that is robust and meets the desired performance characteristics. To enable this, we use a dedicated vehicle control unit (VCU) that is running FEV’s matured model library called PERSIST. The platform makes use of the inherent advantage of being a small scale vehicle that can be used with lower sized components or reduced set of components without compromising on safety. The electric vehicle platform will have modularly developed components and associated software and hardware with standardized interfaces. The electric power train includes support for standardized lithium ion batteries and a low cost vehicle control unit. This is required to not only safe guard the system overall but also be able to optimize the driving range, enhance drivability and to provide the driver with a more stable and secure interface for operating the vehicle. The expected rapid growth in

Kumaran, Ajith, Ahmad, Sarah, Chanumolu, Raviteja, Sadekar, Gaurav, Joshi, Mohan, Sharma, Vijay

An Optimal Rule Based Energy Management System for a Hybrid Electric 2-Wheeler Based on Dynamic Programming Technique

2019-26-012801/09/2019

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are quite popular solution because of their low fuel consumption and extended range of driving compared to other solutions available. While the fuel consumption depends on the selection of hybrid architecture, the other critical parameter that affects the fuel consumption (Fuel Economy) is the energy management among the different hybrid components. After finalizing the hybrid vehicle architecture, different strategies can be adopted for energy management viz. rule based, fuzzy logic based, Dynamic Programming (DP), ECMS, and PMP etc. Each of these approaches possess some advantages and disadvantages. One of the simple approaches to develop energy management system (supervisory control) is ‘Rule Based’ strategy. However, the outcome of the rule-based strategies heavily depends on selection of optimal rules for strategy development. The other alternative for developing an optimal control strategy is Dynamic Programming (DP). Though DP is a very good

Nidubrolu, Kranthi, Dhamija, Lohit, Chaudhary, Pramod, Kirtane, Chinmay

2018-28-005507/09/2018

The main objectives of this work are to develop an Electric Vehicle to empower physically challenged drivers to some extent and women motorist. The vehicle was designed to be driven by people with orthopaedic limps related problem by using Autodesk Inventor software. Many features were provided to support the physically challenged person such as a ramp for the driver to board the vehicle and steering, acceleration and braking control was also provided for a single hand to manoeuvre the car. The vehicle has the capacity to seat up to six passengers and is propelled with 1200 watts (BLDC) motor which was aided by four 12 V and 100 Amps DC battery. The car exhibited a mileage of 72 kilometres per complete charge on trial run with the driver alone riding the vehicle. This work is mainly dedicated to movement disabled in our society.

Elsen, Renold, Kaliyaperumal, Dhamodaran

Life Cycle Analysis Comparison of Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Based Mobility

2018-28-003707/09/2018

Policy makers, especially in the European Union, are pushing towards an early transition to electric mobility, with the internal combustion engine supposed to be phased out by 2030. With a world population projected to exceed 10 billion peoples by 2050, the electric car mobility still lacks the significant development needed to become a real alternative to the internal combustion engine based mobility. Resources availability, and environmental, energetic and economic downfalls, are currently largely underrated or simply unassessed. It is unclear how many will be able to afford to purchase and recharge an electric vehicle in this new world.

Boretti, Alberto

Industry Review of xEV Battery Size Standards

J3124_201806 (Current)06/12/2018

This Technical Information Report (TIR) will review the global industry battery size standards for xEV vehicles to provide guidance on available cell sizes for engineers developing battery powered vehicles. The TIR will include a review of the sizes and standards that are currently being developed or used for cylindrical cells, pouch (or polymer) cells, and for prismatic can cells. The lithium-ion cell will be the focus of this survey, but module and pack level size standards, where available, will also be included.

Battery Cell Size Standardization Committee

Comprehensive Life Test for 12 V Automotive Storage Batteries

J2801_201805 (Current)05/07/2018

This SAE Standard applies to 12 V, flooded and absorptive glass mat lead acid automotive storage batteries of 200 minutes or less reserve capacity and cold crank capacity greater than 200 amperes. This life test is considered to be comprehensive in terms of battery manufacturing technology; applicable to lead-acid batteries containing wrought or cast positive grid manufacturing technology and providing a reasonable correlation for hot climate applications. This document is intended as a guide toward standard practice, but may be subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances.

Starter Battery Standards Committee

Modularized Simulation Tool to Evaluate Battery Solutions for 12 V Advanced Start Stop Vehicles

2018-01-044604/03/2018

The 12 V advanced start stop systems can offer 5-8% fuel economy improvement over a conventional vehicle. Although the fuel economy is not as high as those of mild to full hybrids, its low implementation cost makes it an attractive electrification solutions for vehicles. As a result, the 12 V advanced start stop technology has been evolving fast in recent years. On one hand, battery suppliers are offering a variety of energy storage solutions such as stand-alone lead acid, stand-alone LFP/Graphite, dual batteries of lead acid parallel with NMC/LTO, LMO/LTO, NMC/Graphite, and capacitors, etc. For dual battery solutions, the architecture also varies from passive parallel connection to active switching. On the other hand, OEM are considering to leverage a lot more use out of traditional 12 V SLI (start, light, and ignition) for functions such as power steering, air conditioning, heater, etc. Depending on battery architecture and vehicle functioning design, the energy management strategy

Zhang, Zhenli, Jin, Zhihong, Watson, Thomas

Development of Battery Management System for Hybrid Electric Two Wheeler

2018-01-043004/03/2018

The use of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) will become imperative to meet the emission challenges. HEV have two power sources-fossil fuels driven I.C. Engine and the battery based drive. Battery technologies have seen a tremendous development, and therefore HEV’s have been benefited. Even as the battery capacities have improved, maintaining and monitoring their health has been a challenge. This research paper uses open-source platform to build a BMS. The flexibility in the implementation of the system has helped in the rapid prototyping of the system. The BMS system was evaluated on a scaled-down electric toy car for its performance and sustainability. The BMS was evaluated for reverse polarity, protection against overcharge, short-circuit, deep discharge and overload on lead acid battery. It also includes temperature monitoring of the batteries. This proposed system is evaluated on the in-house HEV two-wheeler. The initial results are promising. A dedicated android smartphone

Bagul, Yogesh, Ingale, Manish, Wani, Kiran, Patil, Sanjay A

Development of a 48 V P0 Demonstration Vehicle with eBooster® Air Charging

2018-01-041804/03/2018

The design of a demonstration vehicle is presented where improvements to the electrical and air induction systems are made which provide increased performance with improved fuel economy. This is made possible by a 48 V architecture which enables the deployment of new components, specifically a belted motor generator unit (MGU) and electrically-driven compressor (eBooster®). The synergy between these components enables energy efficient means to collect regenerated energy and provide added torque, faster engine response, and extended engine off operation among a list of added features. Control features and strategy are highlighted along with simulation and vehicle test data. Resultant performance and fuel economy benefits are reviewed which support the contention of 48 V being a cost effective architecture to enable CO2 reduction relative to a higher voltage hybrid.

Mohon, Sara, Van Maanen, Keith, Liu, Xiaobing, Keller, Philip, Griffen, Matthew, Negandhi, Varun

Life Test for Heavy-Duty Storage Batteries (Lead Acid Type only)

J2185_201801 (Current)

01/24/2018

This SAE Standard applies to lead-acid 12 V heavy-duty storage batteries as described in SAE J537 and SAE J930 for uses in starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) applications on motor vehicles and/or off-road machines. These applications have some of the following characteristics: a High levels of power are required to start the vehicle’s internal combustion engine. The need to supply this power limits the maximum depth of discharge to a fraction of the total capacity of the battery. The battery must be maintained at a charge level sufficient to perform this primary function by vehicle’s voltage-regulated charging system. b The vehicle’s engine powers a voltage regulated charging system that limits the charging voltage when spinning at sufficient speed and when total loads do not exceed its output limits. c The battery is subject to deeper discharging than a typical automotive application as a result of the following conditions: High daily hours of use High numbers of starts per day

Starter Battery Standards Committee