Browse Topic: Battery packs

Items (746)

Optimizing Cooling Circuit Lines in between Batteries and Its Thermal Management Unit

2025-01-501703/21/2025

Ensuring uniform coolant distribution in electric buses is crucial for battery performance, longevity, and thermal stability. This study optimizes the battery thermal management system (BTMS) for an 18-m electric bus, addressing uneven coolant flow to battery packs caused by pressure drop variations. One-dimensional (1D) simulations were chosen for their ability to quickly and efficiently analyze flow and pressure variations, providing a fast solution to optimize coolant distribution across the system. dP-Q curves for the BTMS pump and battery packs were integrated into the 1D model based on supplier data, while the flow resistances of other components (pipes, bends) were calculated using KULI software. To correct flow imbalances, pipe diameters were adjusted to increase resistance in over-cooled areas, redistributing coolant to under-cooled sections. This modification resulted in a balanced flow and improved thermal consistency, contributing to longer battery life. Validation showed

Birgül, Çağrı Emre, Meydan, Ömer

Development of an efficient vehicle energy management system for fuel cell electric vehicles.

2024-26-017301/16/2024

Fuel cell electric vehicles generally have two power sources – the fuel cell power system and a high voltage battery pack - to power the vehicle operations. The fuel cell power system is the main source of power for the vehicle and its operations are supported by the battery pack. The battery pack helps to tackle the dynamic power demands from the vehicle such as during acceleration, to which the response of the fuel cell might be slower. The battery is also used to recover the energy from regeneration during braking and can also be used to extend the range of the vehicle in case the storage tanks runs out of hydrogen. In order to maximize the fuel efficiency of the fuel cell power system it is critical that these two power sources are used in conjunction with each other in an optimal manner. The two power sources must operate such that the power demand from the vehicle is met at all times without over exerting either of these two sources as this can lead to drop in life and health of

Jacob, Joe, Brahmbhatt, Smitan, Adsul, Aniket, PRASAD, PULUGURTHA

Simulation Based Validation of Battery Structural Integrity for Mechanical Abuse as per AIS 156

2024-26-024201/16/2024

Battery is one of the safety critical systems in EV. As the number of EVs increases, battery safety becomes an important task to avoid any mishap during its use, as even small accidents may slow down the adaptation of EVs. Automotive environment being one of the harshest operating environments, it is important to ensure both mechanical and electrical safety of the battery pack. Li-Ion batteries are most popular among traction batteries, due to their high energy density, long life, and fast charging capabilities. But mechanical damage, overtemperature, short-circuit, etc. may lead to battery thermal runaway, causing a major accident. Mechanical abuse of battery can be one of the reasons that may lead to the damages mentioned above, eventually causing thermal runaway in batteries. That’s why all major battery safety standards have requirements for vibration and mechanical shock tests. In this paper, we will be developing a methodology to evaluate the structural integrity of a battery

Dandge, Sunil, Mahamuni, Ameya, Sevda, Gaurav, H, Rajesh, Kumar, Ravindra, Mahajan, Rahul

A Comparison of Wire Bonding vs. Spot Welding vs. Soldering in the Prevention of Thermal Runaway in a Battery Pack

2024-26-010901/16/2024

EVs are a fast-growing market and appear as a promising option against the high emission of gasoline and diesel vehicles. The growth in the EV market has been decent and a regular buyer is still skeptical due to fire incidents occurring with EVs. Complex electronics, improper thermal management, mechanical abuse, improper cell grading activities and control in production, lack of testing in a production plant, and of course, uneven degradation of cells can be one of the reasons this promising technology is facing thermal runaway and in turn, the wrath of the government and public alike. One of the reasons thermal runaway can be triggered after a cell catches fire is because a part of heat travels via busbars to the neighboring cells, as the busbars can conduct heat faster than the air. For the heat that is conducted, it is easily understandable that we need to break the electrical, as well as thermal conduction connection to the neighboring cells. This paper presents a comparison of

Pawar, Aniruddha, Khan, Faiz, Shah, Harsh, Malani, Shekhar

Adaptive derating algorithm for EV application based-Li-Ion battery for safe and healthy operation

2024-26-010801/16/2024

Battery packs used in Electric Vehicles (EVs) pose significant safety risks and can incur additional costs and downtime when facing extreme conditions such as thermal and undervoltage hard cut-off. This article emphasizes the importance of implementing thermal and voltage based derating techniques to ensure the safe operation of battery packs. Thermal derating controls the maximum allowed battery current to prevent thermal runaway along with maintaining the health of the cells. While voltage derating prevents cut-off at low SOC regions by managing the cell voltage operating range through real time calculation of DCIR based voltage drop. By adopting these methods, battery packs can operate more safely and reliably in various environment conditions, which is essential in many applications. The article introduces the adaptive derating index, which utilizes State of Health (SoH) and real-time measurements of battery parameters such as temperature, voltage drop, and current to adjust the

Gautam, Ashish, SJ, Janarthanan, Badiger, Kartik, Soni, Lokesh

A Traffic Microsimulation Based Study of an Electric Road System with Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer

2024-26-010201/16/2024

Electrification of road transport is a critical step towards establishment of a sustainable transport ecosystem. However, a major hindrance to electric mobility is the high cost and weight of the battery pack. Downsizing the battery pack will not only address these issues, but will also reduce embedded emissions due to battery manufacturing. One approach towards reducing battery pack size and still offering the user of electric vehicles similar mobility experiences as in case of conventional vehicles is to set up extensive network of charging or battery swapping stations. Another approach is to provide the vehicle with required energy while it is on the move. However, conventional systems such as overhead line or conducting rails have several disadvantages in the urban environment. One solution that has come up in this regard in recent times is the concept of Electric Roads System (ERS), which involves dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) to the vehicles from power transmitters

Sardar, Arghya, Prasad, Mukti

Effect of Busbar Design on the Thermal Performance of Battery Packs

2024-26-013501/16/2024

Li-ion batteries face challenges which is not usually present with other chemistries is cell balancing. If a high imbalance occurs within a parallel circuit, possibly because of the poor cell -grading or due to temperature localization, the other cells will charge the unbalanced cell and it may be possible that the imbalance never completely fades away and the other cells also end up unbalanced, One of the key solutions to maintaining cell balance is to ensure that all cells within a battery pack are kept at a uniform temperature. This requires careful thermal management, which can be achieved through a combination of conduction and convection circuits. In this paper, a 1D-3D simulation study has been performed on a 12 V 4s4p pack by varying the thickness of HV busbars and temperature localization effects and temperature uniformity has been observed. The holder has 16 cells with a 4*4 grid pattern, each cell has a diameter of 18 mm and a length of 65mm. The cells are connected in

Jagtap, Aditya, Khan, Faiz, Shah, Harsh, Malani, Shekhar

A Review on Fire Prevention and Suppression Solutions for EV Battery Packs

2024-26-001201/16/2024

The lithium-ion batteries are susceptible to fires or explosions due to their extremely volatile nature. The energy-dense batteries, such as LiNi_0.8 Mn_0.1 Co_0.1 O_2/Graphite (NMC811) battery that meets the consumer range demands, are most vulnerable under thermal events. A wide number of solutions are being explored to suppress or prevent battery fires. The solutions range from integrating active cooling techniques, passive heat dissipation using heat carrier pads, thermal insulating materials to prevent thermal propagation, safety vents to remove ejecta, and protection circuitries with advanced battery management system. In this paper, we review various safety solutions employed in battery packs for preventing or suppressing potential fire during any thermal runaway event. The identified safety solutions also feature distinctive methods such as usage of hydrogel agents, aerosol fire suppressants and design features. Among the reviewed countermeasures, we provide a detailed analysis

H, Manjunatha, Nambisan T M, Praveen Kumar, R, Pavan, P, Hari Prasad Reddy, G M, Bharath, Kulkarni, Mukund Aravind, Sundaram, Saravanan

System Validation with Battery-in-the-Loop Configuration using a Virtual Testing Toolchain

2024-26-011601/16/2024

Challenge Today, the battery development process for automotive applications is relatively decoupled from the vehicle integration and system design validation phase. Battery module design targets are very much linked to vehicle-level requirements, such as performance, lifetime and cost but are often disregarded at very early design phases. Converging these requirements to more specific battery pack criteria is not straightforward and often based on previous vehicle generation data or cell testing measurements usually performed after prototyping and via artificial charge and discharge patterns Solution To reduce time to market, AVL proposes here a methodology guided by virtual testing techniques to consider vehicle-level validation steps at the very early phase of battery testing. In a first step, AVL utilises a vehicle system simulation supported with real-world test scenarios and high-fidelity battery models. To generate such realistic scenarios, AVL uses an online digital map and

Kolar, Ales, Santiago, Prabhu, Kural, Emre

Effect of Ceramifiable Silicone Rubber Composite based Thermal Insulators in Battery Packs

2024-26-035101/16/2024

Silicone and rubber composite, often called Ceramifiable Silicone Rubber (CSR) has proven to show excellent mechanical and thermal properties. CSR materials have been mainly used in industrial applications like electrical insulating cables, decorations, and fire-proof materials. The mechanical and ceramifiable properties of CSR can be altered by changing the silicone rubber matrix and by adding the right additives or fillers. In this work, we prove the potential of CSR composites as thermal insulating materials in battery packs. Specifically, we explore the usage of CSR inside the battery pack to improve safety during thermal events. We also characterize the material properties before and after exposing the CSR composite to elevated temperatures and flame. Finally, we investigate the effectiveness of the CSR composite sheet in preventing or delaying cell-to-cell thermal propagation during a thermal runaway event inside the battery pack. Our experiments show that the CSR composite sheet

Nambisan T M, Praveen Kumar, H, Manjunatha, R, Pavan, P, Hari Prasad Reddy, G M, Bharath, Kulkarni, Mukund Aravind, Sundaram, Saravanan

Design and Development of E-axle as a retro and OE fitment solution for Light Commercial Vehicles ranging from 1.5 to 5 Ton GVW

2024-26-011901/16/2024

The Light commercial vehicle (LCV) is primarily used for the last mile delivery and it holds the volume share of around 61% in the commercial vehicle segment. The last mile delivery services have seen a massive surge after the CoVID-19 pandemic resulting is the increase sale of LCV in last few years and is expected to grow further by 8-11% in the coming years. However, city logistic is also responsible for most pollution and noise in the city. Hence, policymakers are aiming to reduce carbon footprint by promoting the use of Electric vehicle by providing incentive to automakers though schemes like FAME-I and FAME-II. In order to effectively reduce the carbon footprint within city it is important to increase the use of new electric vehicle and convert the old polluting vehicles to electric. Hence, a retro fitment solution for converting used LCV to electric can help in reducing emission as well as noise pollution. Later the same solution can be offered as OE fitment solution. Though

VAIBHAV, KUMAR, Mulik, Rakesh Vilasrao, Shrikrishna Ramdasi, Sushil

Immersion Cooled Portable Battery Pack Concept for Small EVs

2024-26-011101/16/2024

India is amid of a mobility revolution with the adaption of electric vehicles (EV). Such large-scale EV adoption comes with critical safety challenges related to thermal management of batteries. EVs catching fire during running & parked conditions has been widely noticed throughout the country. The cause of fire in most of the cases is poor thermal management and thermal mitigation strategies. Owing to this in Sep-2022, the Government of India amended the EV battery testing standards and implemented Amendment-3 of AIS-156 in a phased manner, with Phase-1 came into effect from Dec-2022 & Phase-2 from Mar-2023. This paper introduces a battery thermal technology that will address these automotive safety needs and government requirements by achieving better thermal management of EV batteries and reducing thermal failures. Present EV battery thermal management systems are either air (active & passive) or liquid-based cooling systems. Most liquid cooling technologies usually incorporate a

Jadhav, Jeevesh, Neve, Gaurav, Hiremath, Vinodkumar, Nagpure, Shrikant, Emran, Ashraf

Twin Motor System for Electric Vehicle Propulsion by Means of Two Energy Sources

2024-26-011301/16/2024

The transport sector in all domains like personal vehicles, public transport and logistics has seen a tremendous growth over the past decade, more so in the last 5 years. The main reasons for this rapid growth is the development of new energy storage systems in battery technology ( Lithium ion ,sodium ion ,aluminum air etc.), hydrogen fuel cells, super capacitors etc. On the other hand there has been tremendous development in the motor drive technology with the availability of brushless dc motors (BLDC Motors), induction motors, Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM,IPMSM). Each motor having its own special characteristics and usage suited for a very specific application in terms of torque and load bearing capacities. In this paper we describe a unique platform with twin motor drive system electric vehicle which is powered by an artificial intelligence (AI) enabled electronic module DuoPackR. The basic platform is described with the help of a bicycle which has two BLDC motors on

PRATIWADIBHAYANKARAM, Ashwini Kumar Krishnaswamy, K A, Rakesh, Sangam, Manjunath

Sensitivity Analysis of Advanced Non-Linear Observer for States Estimation of Lithium ion Batteries

2023-01-700010/30/2023

Control observer-based estimation methods are getting a very rapid appreciation due to their better reliability, stability and ease of implementation in already controller-packed electric vehicles and energy storage systems. As a careful sensitivity analysis is the one vital tool to enhance the accuracy and robustness of lithium-ion battery’s states estimation, an experimental sensitivity analysis is proposed to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of battery states and parameter estimation of non-linear control observer. This paper categorically uses INR21700-M50T cells for experimental characteristic analysis of lithium-ion batteries. The results of this practical work are then used in the successful design, simulation and validation of an advanced proportional integral observer. The validated proportional-integral (PI) observer is then used to carry out the proposed sensitivity analysis, and deviations resulted in estimation accuracy due to the sensitivity of each parameter are

Saeed, Muhammad, Khalatbarisoltani, Arash, Zhongwei, Deng, Lu, Shuai, Xiaosong, Hu

Numerical Investigation of cylindrical Li-Ion Battery Pack Thermal Management

2022-28-041811/09/2022

Rapid movement of vehicle industry towards electrification has generated need for efficient and time saving methods to predict temperature across battery pack in different operating conditions which will assist in designing effective cooling methods for battery. The main requirements for efficient working of Li-Ion battery are (a) optimum operating temperature range and (b) small variation of temperature across the battery pack cells. Temperature across pack increases during charging and discharging cycles of battery in different operating cycles of machine. Especially due to high current rates in discharging, there is large temperature rise in battery. Elevated temperature profiles inside battery adversely affects many performance parameters like power, charge acceptance, life cycle and influences electrochemical reaction inside cells. Temperatures above the specified limits will cause degradation of performance and deterioration of material. If dissipation of heat is not efficient

Dewangan, Nitin

Numerical Modeling of Electro-Thermal Behavior of a Typical Lithium-Ion Cell and Pack Level Using NewmanP2D Approach

2022-28-040911/09/2022

Numerical simulation of lithium-ion batteries (LIB) has become extremely vital in the understanding of thermal behavior of LIBs in order to develop active and passive battery thermal management systems. The LIB is popular in consumer electronics. Beyond consumer electronics, the LIB is also growing in popularity for the automotive applications such as hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) due to its high energy density, high voltage, and low self-discharge rate. High amount of heat generally gets developed during charge and discharge of LIB based on the C-rate at which it is being discharged or charged. Hence, there should be a mechanism to understand the thermal behavior of these cells. Thus, in this paper a numerical procedure has been developed to model electrochemical-thermal behaviour of commercially available 21700 Li-ion cells. NewmanP2D approach is used to arrive at electrochemistry performance of Li-ion cell and pack. Well known commercial code

Gudi, Abhay, U, Reghunath, Bonala, Sastry

An Experimental Study on Effectiveness of Electronic Expansion Valve [EXV] in EV HVAC System

2022-28-042411/09/2022

HVAC system maintaining passenger comfort have evolved out as vital system as any other automotive systems. As the automotive industry is in its transition to EV technology, Battery Thermal Management is critical for the life, efficiency, performance, and safety of battery pack and thus the vehicle. Liquid Cooling is one of the more common battery cooling strategies that uses Chiller as a heat exchanger between coolant and refrigerant. The added thermal load imparted during battery cooling impacts the cabin temperature with a sensible effect. Present day TXV based chiller system creates a significant impact in the vent-level and in-cabin temperatures when the battery cooling request is ON. Gaining control over refrigerant mass flow to chiller quantitatively with thermal load can reduce the effect on cabin temperatures. This in turn cut down the load on compressor which will aid the range of EV. A comparative study is performed to evaluate the effect of battery cooling on cabin

Majumder, Sayan, Sampath, Karthikeyan, E A, Muhammed, K, Yashojeet

Systematic 1D Thermal Aimulation Approach for Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) using Amesim.

2022-28-041011/09/2022

In this paper a complete vehicle thermal system of BEV battery electric vehicle is presented using 1D method. A battery electric vehicle (BEV), pure electric vehicle, only-electric vehicle, fully electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is a type of electric vehicle (EV) that exclusively uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs, with no secondary source of propulsion All relevant components from battery, inverter, electric motor, gear box, vehicle, driver, refrigerant loop, cabin cooling, chiller, battery heater, DC-DC with auxiliary loads sensors and control system is considered in the simulation. The vehicle is built for HVAC refrigerant loop, battery coolant loop and electric power train loop (EPT) with driving cycle control and vehicle model. The thermal components are stacked from Grill, radiator, condenser, cooling fan and engine back resistances. The airflow to the radiator is computed for different vehicle speed. The condenser capacity is calculated from cabin

Solomon, Samson

Study of Various Battery Thermal Management Systems & its Benefits

2022-28-041411/09/2022

Electric Vehicle is the need of hour as the excessive usage of IC Engine driven Vehicles has depleted the ozone layer to a significant level. With new technology into the market, challenges come hand in hand because of Electric Vehicle. In comparison to IC Vehicle, areas of thermal management or the number of components for which thermal management needs to be done is higher and rather complex. As the thermal management system is the second highest energy consuming source after the powertrain of the electric vehicle, an efficient and reliable design becomes inevitable to ensure last mile driving range. Thermal Management of the Electric Vehicle has been identified as one of the critical parameters in defining the life, durability, range of the vehicle and the safety of its occupants. One of the major concerns in the development of lithium-ion battery packs for EVs is thermal management. The temperature of all cells must be strictly maintained within a few degrees C across the entire

Anandan, Ram

Performance Analysis of Integrated Battery and Traction Motor Cooling Systems for Two-Wheeler Electric Vehicles Applications

2022-28-041311/09/2022

The automotive industry is a huge industry as millions of vehicles are running on the road & it's growing at a rapid rate. The emission from these vehicles are harmful in nature & are bigger concerns for the human being as its increasing day by day at an alarming rate. The emissions are causing various global problems such as global warming, green house effects, air pollutions etc. due to the use of fossil fuels in abundance. This drives to think for alternative solutions, which are eco-friendly & having less or no emissions. The electric vehicles (EVs) are the most reliable solution as it is having high performance & efficiency without emissions. EVs are most suitable option to reduce global warming & greenhouse effects etc. The evolution of EVs has fueled the two-wheeler EVs industry to flourish at a fast pace. Li-ion battery & traction motor is the most important components in two-wheeler EVs. Li-ion batteries are compact, light-weight, fast-chargeable, having low self-discharge

Suman, Saurabh, Kushwah, Yogendra Singh

Feasibility Analysis of Submerged Battery Cooling System for Electric Vehicles

2022-28-041111/09/2022

Due to the depletion of fossil fuels and excessive air pollution, the world is moving towards electric vehicles. Usage of electric vehicles avoids the global warming and safeguard the earth. Batteries are the primary source of electricity for electric vehicles which generates lot of heat during its operation. Now a days, firing accidents of electric vehicles on roads are frequent. One of the most significant systems to avoid this fire accident is thermal management system. Effective thermal management of high-power density battery is essential for battery’s performance, life, and safety. Components that are used for the thermal management are to be as efficient as possible to achieve effective cooling of batteries. Direct Liquid Cooling has received lot of interest in recent years. A non-conductive dielectric fluid is used to submerge the battery cells. As the fluid is dielectric, the direct contact with the cell surfaces will not be tend to short circuit the battery. This direct

Deepan Kumar, Sadhasivam, M, Boopathi, Praveenkumar, Nagarajan, Sabariraj, R

1-D Thermal Simulation and Experimental Validation of Li-Ion Battery Pack Cooling System

2022-28-042911/09/2022

In today’s world EV plays an important role in reducing fuel consumption, pollution and global climate change. In EVs, Li-ion batteries are most preferred ones and their optimum operating temperature should be 15 °C to 30 °C, for that Battery Cooling System (BCS) is needed during charging and discharging for better performance in tropical regions. A flexible design methodology is required to evaluate and enhance the performance of BCS before the prototyping. This study mainly focused on 1-D thermal analysis and experimental validation of BCS. The simulation results and tests data shows good agreement within ±10% variation.

Jangir, Kuldeep Kumar, Srivastava, Umang

Utilizing Machine Learning Algorithms in a Data-Driven Approach to the Prediction of Vehicle Battery State of Charge with BMW i3 Datasets

2022-01-508810/17/2022

The state of charge (SoC) in an electric vehicle must be assessed and projected for any scenario, using the array of data points that can be extracted from a vehicle. In this paper, we explored the utility of data-driven approaches to SoC prediction that do not rely upon any internal or equation-based understanding of the device operation. We leveraged three unique machine learning algorithms to predict the battery SoC using data from other features of electric vehicles. We leveraged a publicly available dataset describing vehicle parameters and trip details for 70 trips in EV BMW™ i3 (60 ah) vehicles and evaluated aforementioned machine learning algorithms for predicting SoC percentage. We utilized a data processing technique (delta and stagger) to extract different perspectives from each trip record and demonstrated that machine learning techniques can be effectively used to predict battery SoC for a wide range of driving conditions and trip parameters.

Puri, Shreya

Theoretical Analysis of the Thermal Resistance Network for Battery Thermal Management

2022-01-508710/12/2022

Battery thermal management for electric vehicles have gained significance over recent years, especially for the present lithium-ion batteries. However, high operating temperature and uneven temperature distribution inside the battery cell can significantly reduce capacity and lifetime. The temperature difference between the battery cells needs to be minimized to avoid premature aging of specific cells exposed to a higher temperature. The most common way to dissipate heat from the battery cells is to use air or liquid cooling. Air cooling is less complex than liquid cooling, but the extremely high ambient temperature dramatically limits the usage of air cooling. This paper developed a thermal connector that could be repeatedly assembled and disassembled between the battery cell. The thermal connector can effectively dissipate the heat into the refrigeration cycle while providing constant thermal resistance among the battery cells, which can be as lower as 0.115°C/W. Heat transfer

Lian, Yubo, Liu, Jianjian, Liao, Yinsheng, Xu, Haolun

Component Sizing of Electric Vehicles: A Programming Approach

2022-01-508510/06/2022

The rising demand for battery electric vehicles has resulted in market saturation in terms of various start-ups, and established automakers are also introducing new models every year. The automakers have to put a lot of effort into sizing powertrain components optimally to get the best performance and efficiency. This paper proposes a programming approach for estimating the preliminary component sizing based on analytical equations regarding electric motor power rating and battery-pack energy capacity. Estimating tractive force for various vehicle performance goals dictates the motor power rating. The battery sizing for lead-acid and Li-ion batteries is proposed based on the empirical relationship between vehicle curb weight and battery-pack weight and the energy consumption approach. The validation and verification of the program based on output accuracy and user experience are presented.

Pednekar, Nihar, Patil, Satyajit

Hybridization of US Army Combat Vehicles

2022-01-042503/29/2022

As the global automotive market shifts towards electric vehicles, the United States Army must naturally consider this alternative for its larger combat vehicles. Indeed, electric vehicles offer numerous tactical advantages over traditional diesel engines, including higher torque at lower speeds and lower signature. Unfortunately, full electrification of most military vehicles is not feasible due to the weight of the requisite battery pack. However, the Army can take advantage of electric vehicles through hybrid power trains. Hybrid options allow for quiet, resilient, and powerful vehicles that are less constrained by battery technology. This study looks at the feasibility of hybrid power systems for military vehicles including the Humvee, the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle, and the Bradley Fighting Vehicle. The analysis uses a series of standard missions to determine the required specifications for the engine, fuel, and battery pack. This analysis considers both traditional and novel

Mittal, Vikram, Novoselich PhD, Brian, Rodriguez, Andrew

A Battery Ageing Model Applied to Typical Drive Cycles

2022-01-085203/29/2022

Battery ageing tests are usually conducted using defined cycles on individual cells under controlled conditions. The applicability of these tests to real world conditions in electric vehicles (EVs) is limited. One problem is that vehicles do not operate under constant conditions, and another issue is that not every cell in a battery pack is cooled equally. This leads to cells operating at different temperatures, which causes different electrical behavior and different ageing. This paper presents two fundamental contributions to help understand the analysis of thermal behavior in a battery pack. The first contribution is the reformulation of an empirical cell ageing law into a dynamic model suitable for varying cell conditions. This model can be combined with a typical electrical and thermal model of a battery to provide a simple yet comprehensive simulation model. The second fundamental contribution is that this paper provides a simple model to look at the impact of differences between

Steffen, Thomas, Fly, Ashley, Mickelson, Sean

Methods for State of Health Estimation and Remaining Useful Life Prognostics for EV Lithium-ion Batteries: A Review

2022-01-085003/29/2022

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) power majority of battery electric vehicles due to their relatively better performance and reliability. LIBs offer high energy density, cycle life, power capability when used in their operating zones. However, LIBs experience ageing and performance degradation due to operating conditions and internal factors which if not characterised lead to unexpected battery failures combined with safety hazards. State of health (SOH) metric provides an effective measure on the battery health and be used to calculate the Remaining useful life (RuL) of the battery. Accurate SOH prediction in Electric vehicles is key to improve pack performance, enable preventive maintenance to reduce unexpected failures, enhance battery life and safety. EV battery packs are equipped with Battery Management Systems (BMS). State of art BMSs are equipped with advanced algorithms for state estimation and are IOT enabled to save field performance data over cloud. Currently, algorithms which

Aphale, Siddharth

An Accurate Lumped Electro-Thermal Model for a Full Battery Pack

2022-01-086703/29/2022

An accurate lumped electro-thermal coupled (ETC) model for a full battery pack is proposed and validated using the 3D computational fluid dynamic (CFD) approach. The battery pack module consists of 14S1P configuration, where all 14-cells are connected in series. The electrical performance is model using equivalent circuit model (ECM). The thermal part is model using reduced order method (ROM) for each of the individual module. The ECM and ROM are two-way coupled. The module ROM cold plate connection is through heat transfer coefficient with varying flow rate conditions. Finally, the accuracy of lumped ETC model is validated and compared it with 3D CFD simulations. Using this approach, the comparison shows that the results from such a lumped ETC model with varying flow rate are within 6% of the CFD results.

Wakale, Anil Bhaurao, Hu, Xiao, Champhekar, Omkar, Xi, Shun

Framework for Co-estimation of State of Charge and State of Available Power for Battery Management Systems

2022-01-085903/29/2022

The battery management system (BMS) ensures safe operation of cells defining a safe operation zone for charge/discharge currents, temperatures, provides cell balancing and fault management. The BMS is also responsible for defining limiting currents during acceleration, regenerative braking and gradient climb. Accurate state of charge (SOC) and state of available power (SoAP) estimation is required for these tasks. This enables energy management system to affect regulation over power flow in the vehicle thus improving battery performance and lifetime. The goal is to develop a computationally inexpensive algorithm for Soc and SoAP estimation which can be implemented in BMS for onboard state estimation tasks. In this work, a framework for co-estimation of SOC and SoAP is proposed. The algorithm is developed considering a series – parallel connected battery pack for light electric vehicle (electric scooter or bicycle) application. An equivalent circuit model (ECM) is formulated for the

Aphale, Siddharth

Design Methodology for Energy Storage System in Motorsports Using Statistical Analysis of Mission Profile

2022-01-080403/29/2022

In recent years, many motorsports have been developing competitions based on electric vehicles. The demanding performance requires the battery pack to have the perfect balance between energy, power, and weight. This research paper presents a systematic methodology for the initial design of the battery pack (size and cell chemistry) by statistically analyzing the characteristics of the mission profile. The power profile for the battery pack of a motorsport vehicle can be estimated considering the duty cycle of a racing car using the technical and sporting regulations and vehicle parameters. In this paper, many statistical metrics correlated to this power profile have been defined and analyzed (such as the max, mean, and standard deviation of the power profile, the total energy consumed, and the expected heat generation). These metrics have been used to estimate the cell energy and power density requirement and the pack sizing considering the weight constraints. A formal methodology to

Khanna, Yatin, D'Arpino, Matilde, Ramesh, Prashanth

Comparative Analysis of Protection Systems for DC Power Distribution in Electrified Vehicles

2022-01-015303/29/2022

Electric transportation has the potential of mitigating CO2 emissions and reduce fuel needs. One of the challenges for the growth of this industry is limited range and efficiency of the vehicles associated with battery storage systems and electric drive technology. High voltage systems are expected to increase efficiency and then vehicle mileage, however this increases the severity of the fault conditions, especially in case of short circuit. Melting fuse is commonly used for the purpose of protection in electrified vehicles, while it is effective and reliable, there are several shortcomings such as lack of precision, effect of ambient temperature, bulky, interruption time depending on the fault condition etc. Additionally, the on-board DC power distribution system (PDS) is characterized by low impedance, in this environment fuses are not able to limit the fault current leading to damage of electronics and hazard for the battery pack. Thus, advanced protection systems such as pyro

Bavishi, Harsh, D'Arpino, Matilde, Ramesh, Prashanth, Guezennec, Yann, Colbert, Ian

Cryptographic Authentication of Battery Pack for Electric Vehicles

2022-01-018903/29/2022

EV (Electric vehicles) are becoming more and more popular nowadays. According to ISO 26262, functional safety is defined as the “absence of unreasonable risk due to hazards caused by malfunctioning behavior of electrical/electronic systems”. Since electric vehicles are driven by battery, a critical asset that need to be protected to avoid malfunctioning behavior is the Vehicle Battery. A Hacker or attacker can intentionally manipulate/modify the information/signal coming from the battery to ECU; this is a huge risk for electric vehicle functionality and safety. A vehicle battery pack which is provided by the OEM, not only ensures the marginal power to be deliver to the ECU and the electric motor, but it also designed with respect to the region it will operate in. For an example, for hot climatic region, proper safety measure is taken for overheating while, designing the battery by the OEM. Thus for a long distance run, this risk and hazardous factor increases with respect to functional

Thekkumbadan, Shyju, Pacharla, Sreedhar, JOSE, JIPIN

Numerical and experimental fatigue investigation on a battery support plate for the pure electric vehicle

2022-01-029303/29/2022

As the international community strengthens the control of carbon dioxide emissions, electric vehicles have gradually become a substitute for internal combustion engine vehicles. The battery pack is one of the most important components of electric vehicles. The strength and fatigue performance of the battery support plate not only affect the performance of the vehicle but also concern the safety of the driver. In the present study, the frequency domain fatigue life of the battery support plate estimation is virtually performed on a full-scale finite element model and verified by a random vibration test. Then, with the RMS stress as the optimization objective, the frequency domain fatigue topology optimization of the battery pack support plate was carried out. The results show that the optimized structure is not only lighter in weight, but the stress at dangerous locations is significantly reduced, and the fatigue life meets the performance requirements.

Liu, Zhe, Gao, Yunkai, Chen, Jiaju, Xie, Furong, wang, Xiaozhao

Modeling and simulation analysis of electric vehicle thermal management system based on distributed parameter method

2022-01-023103/29/2022

In this paper, the distributed parameter method is used to establish the dynamic simulation model of the electric vehicle thermal management system and various parts, and the finite difference method is used to solve the calculation. A thermal management system model for electric vehicles is established by AMESIM to verify the accuracy of the model established in this paper. The model established in this paper is compared with the change trend of refrigerant temperature, pressure and flow rate at the outlet of each component of the system calculated based on the model established by AMESIM, which verifies the correctness of the model established in this paper. Using the established model, the influence of the refrigerant flow on the cooling performance of the battery pack and the influence on the heating comfort of the passenger compartment were studied, and a control strategy for the rapid cooling of the battery pack was proposed. The results show that the model established by the

Fan, Shuang, Wang, Yonggang, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Safety Comparison of Geometric Configurations of Electric Vehicle Battery under Side Pole Impact

2022-01-030803/29/2022

Batteries have various sizes and shapes and can be configured into different layouts in battery pack of electric vehicles. Crash safety performance is one of the key requirements in choosing battery geometric characteristics and designing layout of battery cells in battery pack. In this study, we compared impact responses of different configurations and geometric characteristics of battery cells under side pole impact. The side pole impact is a relatively dangerous collision type for electric vehicles, often causing large deformation and damage to the battery. Using a production battery pack, we first developed a side pole impact test method with sled tester, and then simulated the test. We used the simulation of the test as the baseline model in this study. And with the total volume and mass of battery cells unchanged, we expanded the simulation matrix to several different geometric dimensions and layouts of battery cells, such as battery’s length direction parallel/vertical to the

CHEN, Powen, Xia, Yong, Zhou, Qing

Multiphysics approach for thermal design of liquid cooled EV battery pack

2022-01-023303/29/2022

Thermal management of battery packs is essential to keep the cell temperatures within safe operating limits at all times and, hence, ensure the healthy functioning of an EV. The life cycle of a cell is largely influenced by its operating temperature, maintaining the cell temperature in its optimum range improves its longevity by decreasing its capacity fade rate and in turn extending the life of an EV. Liquid cooling techniques have proven to be cost-effective compared to other techniques such as air cooling, PCM-based in terms of performance in the given volumetric constraints. The battery thermal management solution being presented employs a tabbed type liquid cooling technology that achieves low-temperature differentials for an in-house designed battery pack consisting of 320 LFP cells (Size: 32700) with a total voltage and capacity of 27V and 240Ah respectively. Thermal design of the battery pack considers maximum dissipation when continuously operating at 1C-rate conditions

Singh, Vaibhav Kumar, S N, Akshay

Innovative vehicle battery pack design approach through multiphysics cells simulation

2022-01-030303/29/2022

This paper presents the design procedure of a vehicle battery pack, in terms of electrical and mechanical requirements with an innovative methodology to model Li-ion cells’ thermo-electro-mechanical behaviour. This modelling approach can predict, through FEM analysis, if short circuit happen with consequent generation of fire in case of vehicle crash. This last aspect has several issues related to the multiphysics characteristics of the phenomena due to the fact that battery cells are made up by really thin components and, as consequence, not significant works of an entire deformable battery pack simulation have been found in literature. For this reason, the design approach studied overcomes the classical methodology in which cells’ mechanical behaviour is considered unknown to understand if cell failure appears avoiding over-engineered battery pack structure. At the beginning, a benchmarking activity on existing FEM modelling methodologies of single cells has been conducted

Messana, Alessandro, Pioli, Federico, Savi, Matteo, Ferraris, Alessandro, Airale, Andrea, Carello, Massimiliana

Proposed Standards And Methods For Leak Testing Lithium-Ion Battery Packs Using Glycol-based Coolant With Empirically Derived Rejection Limits

2022-01-084803/29/2022

Lithium-ion batteries are a highly suitable energy source for many applications, particularly in the automotive sector due to their high energy density and low self-discharge rate. During the production of battery cells, rapid detection of leaks is essential to achieve necessary lifetime service-life and safety requirements. Once assembled into packs, whether made of prismatic, cylindrical or pouch cells, packs must be cooled by common automotive thermal management systems, for example those employing engine coolant and radiator, and in which manufacturers must prevent various leak-producing defects that affect durability, longevity and safety Two types of cooling systems are used in automobiles, an active variant in which refrigerant, compressor, evaporator and heat exchanger are used to operate the air conditioning system, or a passive variant with a cooling medium, typically a water/glycol mixture, and a heat exchanger cooled by ambient air. While good industry standards are

Wetzig, Daniel, Blaufuß, Marc

Development of an Efficient Thermal / Elecric Skipping control Strategy applied to a parallel P3 hybrid electric vehicle

2022-01-089903/29/2022

In recent years automobile manufacturer focused towards an increasing degree of electrification of the powertrains with the aim to reduce pollutants emissions and fuel economy. In the face of more complex design processes and control strategies, these powertrains offer an improved fuel exploitation compared to conventional vehicles thanks to an intelligent energy management along the driving mission. A simulation study is here presented aiming at developing a control strategy for a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). The strategy is here applied to the control of the parallel P3 powertrain. The simulation model is implemented using vehicle modeling and simulation toolboxes in MATLAB/Simulink. The model includes thermal engine, electric motor, battery pack and DC-DC converter. A map-based approach is used to model thermal engine and electric motor, while a zeroth equivalent circuit model is used to represent the battery pack. The proposed control strategy is based on an alternative

De Bellis, Vincenzo, Piras, Marco, Malfi, Enrica

Physics-based Equivalent Circuit Model for Lithium-Ion Cells via Reduction and Approximation of Electrochemical Model

2022-01-085603/29/2022

Physics-based electrochemical models and empirical Equivalent Circuit Models (ECMs) are well-established and widely used modeling techniques to predict the voltage behavior of lithium-ion cells. Electrochemical models are typically very accurate and require relatively little experimental data to calibrate, but present high mathematical and computational complexity. Conversely, ECMs are more computationally efficient and mathematically simpler, making them well-suited for applications in controls, diagnosis, and state estimation of lithium-ion battery packs. However, the calibration process requires extensive testing to calibrate the parameters of the model over a wide range of operating conditions. This paper bridges the gap between these two classes of models by developing a method to analytically define the ECM parameters starting from an already-calibrated Extended Single-Particle Model (ESPM). The governing equations of the ESPM were reduced via model order reduction, linearization

Seals, Daniel, Ramesh, Prashanth, D'Arpino, Matilde, Canova, Marcello

EVs on road ground-impact energy evaluation methodology: dynamic and structural assessment of a Finite Element (FE)-based Battery Pack integrated into Full vehicle multi-body model based on ABAQUS environment

2022-01-105503/29/2022

The present paper documents a comprehensive study on the ground-impact of battery packs in Electric Vehicles (EVs), a paramount concern for vehicle manufacturers. During an accidental crash, battery packs are usually exposed dangerously to possible intrusion of foreign objects (e.g., road debris). With the purpose of developing a generic methodology to evaluate the released energy content and due to high nonlinearities involved during the ground-impact maneuvers, a hybrid full vehicle model is needed. Hence, both FE-based battery case and virtual energy sensors have been integrated into the current ABAQUS multi-body (MB) full vehicle model (suspensions, steering system, engine and a trimmed body). Energy peaks are estimated simulating a vehicle going over obstacles that a typical customer can encounter in daily-life (no off-normal situations) performed at different approaching speeds and obstacle sizes. To evaluate the energy, the battery plate is divided as if it were a spaced grid of

Zito, Massimiliano, Puleo, Vincenzo, Signorini, Alberto, DUNI, Efthimio

Towards brand-independent architectures, components and systems for next generation electrified vehicles optimised for the infrastructure

2022-01-111703/29/2022

The virtual E-VOLVE (Electric Vehicle Optimized for Life, Value and Efficiency) Cluster is realizing and monitoring synergies between eight projects from the GV-01 Horizon 2020 call to execute joint dissemination, exploitation and standardization activities. The Projects ACHILES, CEVOLVER, SYS2WHEEL, EVC1000, and Multi-Moby are the members of the E-VOLVE Cluster that will present their achievements in this paper. Achiles, SYS2Wheel, EVC1000: The integration of the BEV demonstrators with the modeling, design and prototyping of the powertrain and chassis components has been successfully achieved with a new wheel concept and out-of-phase control for the brake system and a new torque vectoring algorithm for enhanced vehicle motion control. Performance and safety-related benefits of integrated corner solutions with in-wheel motors will be reported in the full paper. Optimized concepts for energy and thermal management will be outlined involving trip itinerary, range prediction, smart fast

Armengaud, Eric, Brandstätter, Bernhard, Biček, Matej, Buh, Joze, Sorniotti, Aldo, Hartavi, Ahu Ece, Schernus, Christof, Geury, Thomas, Arapoglou, Stella, Heydrich, Marius, Ivanov, Valentin

Estimation of Surface Temperature Distributions Across an Array of Lithium-Ion Battery Cells Using a Long Short-Term Memory Neural Network

2022-01-084503/29/2022

As electric vehicles are becoming increasingly popular and necessary for the future mobility needs of civilization, further effort is continually made to improve the efficiency, cost, and safety of the lithium-ion battery packs that power these vehicles. To facilitate these goals, this paper introduces one possible type of model to predict a distribution of surface temperatures for a lithium-ion battery pack: a long short-term memory (LSTM) neural network. The LSTM model is trained and validated with lithium-ion cells electrically connected to form a battery pack. Voltage, current, state of charge (SOC), and cell surface temperature from one array are used as inputs from a wide range of high and low temperature drive cycles. Additionally, a second model is considered where ambient temperature is added as an input to the LSTM model and the resulting predictions are compared to the original model. In summary the LSTM model can accurately characterize and predict a distribution of lithium

Campbell, Jeffrey, ZHU, DI, Cho, Gyouho

Effect of temperature distribution on the predicted cell lifetimes for a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle battery pack

2022-01-084403/29/2022

Monitoring and preserving state-of-health of high-voltage battery packs in electrified road vehicles currently represents an open and growing research topic. When predicting high-voltage battery lifetime, most current literature assumes a uniform temperature distribution among the different cells of the pack. Nevertheless, temperature has been demonstrated having a key impact on cell lifetime, and different cells of the same battery pack typically exhibit different temperature profiles over time, e.g. due to their position within the pack. Following these considerations, this paper aims at assessing the effect of temperature distribution on the predicted lifetime of cells belonging to the same battery pack. To this end, a throughput-based numerical cell ageing model is firstly selected due to its reasonable compromise between accuracy and computational efficiency. Subsequently, experimentally measured temperature and C-rate profiles over time in a driving mission are considered for

Anselma, Pier Giuseppe, Musa, Alessia, Maino, Claudio, Guenna, Giovanni, Misul, Daniela, Belingardi, Giovanni

Stabilization Power of a Synchronous Machine During the Discharge of Autonomous Energy Sources

2022-01-087803/29/2022

The paper considers an automobile traction electric motor drive with a synchronous motor connected to a battery pack through a voltage inverter. Maintaining the power of the electric drive with fluctuations in the voltage of an autonomous energy source in discharge and changing the load is solved. The nominal (maximum permissible) power of the electric traction drive decreases in proportion to the voltage drop of the source. This factor can significantly degrade the performance of electric vehicles. The problem of stabilizing the electric traction of synchronous machines solves by algorithmic means that do not require voltage stabilizers (converters). The strategy assumes control of an electric traction drive according to the criterion of the maximum power factor of the three-phase voltage of a synchronous machine. The effect of power stabilization with a voltage drop achieves by increasing the active stator current. The development of control algorithms is based on the energy model of

Smolin, Viktor, Gladyshev, Sergey

Commercial Vehicle SLI-Battery Life Enhancement through On-Board Dual-Pulsed Charging

2022-01-086503/29/2022

An optimally functioning SLI battery is a primordial element in the unimpaired operation of an ICE vehicle. Designed to deliver the highest current momentarily during ignition, and not intended for deep discharge, these batteries have been observed to suffer from premature degradation attributed to misuse and lack of maintenance. Attributed to the cell chemistry, a wet-cell lead-acid battery’s degradation is initiated by the reduction of active electrode area through sulfation in each charge-discharge cycle. While the formation and dissolution of sulphate crystals is a normal phenomenon, in scenarios of deep discharge the formation and agglomeration of larger insoluble sulphate crystals reduce the cell capacity leading to overall poor reserve capacity and cold cranking ability of the battery. While these problems have been counter through implementation of passive modifications in battery venting and advanced grid materials in the passenger car segment, the increased cost fails to be

Saha, Satya, PATIDAR, Amit, Jewalkar, Hemant, Patra, Arka

Cycle aging and physico-chemical characterization of commercial cells of automotive interest

2022-01-032403/29/2022

Nowadays, the reduction of greenhouse gases and air pollutants, largely produced by vehicles with internal combustion engines, is of primary importance. The usage of energy storage systems could represent a smart opportunity for cleaner transportation. Lithium ion batteries have emerged as the most suitable technology available on the market to reach this challenging goal. To make Li-ion battery technologies a competitive solution for the automotive industry, costs, performances and safety must be improved. A deep understanding of Li-ion battery materials and their response under real-use conditions is mandatory to achieve these targets. From a full characterization of the electrochemical performances, it is possible to specifically design the charge and discharge conditions for maximizing the battery performances while optimizing its life. In this study the thorough characterization of commercial 18650 cells is carried out over their full life. First, the fresh cells have been

Dotoli, Matteo, Rocca, Riccardo, Giuliano, Mattia, Sgroi, Mauro, Belforte, Luca, Li Pira, Nello, Mangione, Giulia, milo, Emanuele, Nicol, Giovanna, Parussa, Flavio

Numerical Analysis on Mechanical Behavior of Viscoelastic Nano Composite

2021-28-024010/01/2021

The automotive industry is constantly racing towards reduction of CO2 emissions. Electric vehicle has the potential to be sustainable solution to the problem. As with other vehicles its systems are constantly subjected to vibrations caused by different sources. The vehicle battery pack is one such critical system when subjected to vibration suffers degradation and thus requires vibration isolation. This paper deals with study of vibration isolation properties of viscoelastic materials as a constrained layer to be used in automotive application. The damping layer made with Nitrile Butadiene rubber - Poly Vinyl chloride blend (NBR-PVC 5050) and millable polyurethane are compounded with graphene, organo-montmorillonite (OMMT) clay and carbon black as fillers with variable weight percentages. The study involves investigation of the effect of thickness ratio between damping layer and constraining layer on damping properties of the specimen in free and forced vibration setup.

C, Sivakumar, V, Muralidharan, Natarajan, Ravikumar, Manohar, D Murali, Anwar S, Syed

Battery Heat Load Estimation and modeling its Thermal management using Air Conditioning System of an Electric Vehicle

2021-28-023110/01/2021

The performance of lithium-ion batteries and its service life depends on its operating temperature. Operating the battery above 45 °C degrades the performance of the battery and reduces its service life. The high-temperature operation also leads to thermal runaway. So there is a need to monitor the operating temperature and voltage output of the battery using a battery thermal management system to ensure its safety. Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) is a part of the battery management system. The effectiveness of the battery thermal management system depends on the battery pack design, battery chemistry, vehicle operating characteristics and ambient conditions. In this work, a refrigerant-based BTMS is modeled using MATLAB Simulink. Refrigerant R134a used in the air conditioning system of an Electric Vehicle is used as an evaporative cooling medium to cool the batteries. The battery pack is submerged in the pool of refrigerant for cooling and to control the battery temperature

Kaliaperumal, MuthuKrishnan

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